Bridge Engineering

Chapter 1: Introduction & Concept Design

Dr. Adel Al-Assaf

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Introduction

 A bridge is a structure built to span physical

obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or
road, for the purpose of providing passage over
the obstacle.

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History
 Short spans of cut wooden
logs

 Roman and other nations

used masonry Arches Bridges
Why arches?

 South Amrica used ropes or

vines covered with pieces of
bamboo

 Modern Bridges are known

after 1900’s
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 Type of Bridges
 Bridges are classified according to:
 Structural system
 Girder/Slab Type
 Suspension Bridges
 Cable-Stayed Bridges
 Arch
 Truss
 Construction material
 Steel
 Concrete
 Timber
 Aluminum
 Superstructure Type: deck shape

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 Bridge Components

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 Bridge Components

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 Bridge Components

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Type of Girder/Slab Highway Bridges
Slab
• RC, PT/PS Concrete Solid Slab
• RC, PT/PS Voided slab

Concrete Box Girder

• Concrete
• Steel

Girders with Deck Slab

• PT/PS Girders
• Steel Plate Girders

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 Codes

 American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO): is a standards
setting body which publishes specifications, test
protocols and guidelines which are used in highway
design and construction throughout the United
States.

 AASHTO-LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

http://www.transportation.org/

 US Federal Highway Administration:

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Design Objective
1. Safety

2. Serviceability
a. Durability
b. Materials
c. Self-Protecting Measures
d. Inspectability
e. Maintainability
f. Rideability
g. Utilities
h. Deformations
i. Consideration of Future Widening
j. Constructibility

3. Economy

4. Bridge Aesthetics
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 Concept & Preliminary Study
 Multi disciplinary Study:
 Geo-technical, site survey, Satellite images, GIS, EIA
and

 Traffic / Transportation Study:

 Estimate the anticipated traffic volume and loads, to
study traffic demand and possibility of widening

 Type, Size & Location

 Possible bridge design alternatives

 Value Engineering Study

 To choose the “Best or the Valued” solution that
achieves the design criteria and owner’s
requirements.

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General Factors for Consideration
Many factors must be considered in preliminary bridge design. Some of the
more common of these are listed in general categories below.

A. Site Requirements
 Topography
 Alignment (tangent, curved, skewed)
 Vertical profile and superelevation
 Highway Class and design speed
 Proposed or existing utilities

B. Safety – Feasibility of falsework (impaired clearance and sight distance,

depth requirements,
 see Section 2.3.10)
 Density and speed of traffic
 Detours or possible elimination of detours by construction staging
 Sight distance (As per AASHTO recommendations)
 Horizontal clearance to piers (min 800mm from curb line)
 Vertical Clearance (min. 5.50 meters for Highway Bridges)
 Hazards to pedestrians, bicyclists

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General Factors for Consideration

C. Economic
 Funding classification (federal and state funds, state funds
only, local developer funds)
 Funding level
 Bridge preliminary cost estimate

D. Structural
 Limitation on structure depth, due to limitation on clear
height (Min. 5.50 meters)
 Requirements for future widening
 Foundation and groundwater conditions
 Anticipated settlement
 Stage construction
 Falsework limitations

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General Factors for Consideration
E. Environmental
 Site conditions (wetlands, environmentally sensitive areas)
 EIS requirements
 Mitigating measures
 Construction access

F. Aesthetic
 General appearance
 Compatibility with surroundings and adjacent structures
 Visual exposure and experience for public

G. Construction
 Ease of construction
 Falsework clearances and requirements
 Erection problems
 Hauling difficulties and access to site
 Construction season
 Time limit for construction
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General Factors for Consideration
H. Hydraulic
 Bridge deck drainage
 Stream flow conditions and drift
 Passage of flood debris
 Scour, effect of pier as an obstruction (shape, width, skew, number of columns)
 Bank and pier protection
 Consideration of a culvert as an alternate solution
 Permit requirements for navigation and stream work limitations

I. Maintenance
 Concrete vs. Steel
 Expansion joints
 Bearings
 Deck protective systems
 Inspection and Maintenance Access (UBIT
clearances)

J. Other – Prior commitments made to other

agency officials and individuals of the
community Recommendations resulting from
preliminary studies
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 Bridge Aesthetics
The following guidelines should be considered (AASHTO-LRFD 2.5.5):
 Alternative bridge designs without piers or with few piers should be
studied during the site selection and location stage and refined during
the preliminary design stage.
 Pier form should be consistent in shape and detail with the
superstructure. Abrupt changes in the form of components and
structural type should be avoided. Where the interface of different
structural types cannot be avoided, a smooth transition in appearance
from one type to another should be attained.
 Attention to details, such as deck drain downspouts, should not be
overlooked.
 If the use of a through structure is dictated by performance and/or
economic considerations, the structural system should be selected to
provide an open and uncluttered appearance.
 The use of the bridge as a support for message or directional signing or
lighting should be avoided wherever possible.
 Transverse web stiffeners, other than those located at bearing points,
should not be visible in elevation.
 For spanning deep ravines, arch-type structures should be preferred.

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TS&L Study
 Prerequisites: EIA, site data and surveys (existing and feature condition
maps & as built drawings of all buildings and services), site visit data,
geotechnical investigation and hydraulic study.

 The designer has to develop at least Four TS&L proposals. The best option
will be selected and refined by means of Value Engineering Process.

 TS&L recommends the following

 Type of bride superstructure and substructure, including the type of
foundation

 Size of carriageway, depth of the superstructure, height, number of spans,

and any other geometric dimensions.

 Location of bridge components, including bridge stake-out location and

alignment (including the approaches), bridge edges location, locations of
pier, location of abutments, beginning and end of the bridge.

 Possible feature widening, if required, should be addressed in the design.

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TS&L Study – Procedure
1. Develop a list of all feasible alternatives. At this stage, the range
of alternatives should be kept wide open. Brainstorming with
supervisors and other engineers can provide new and innovative
solutions (team work).

2. Eliminate the least desirable alternatives by applying the

constraints of the project. Question and document the
assumptions of any restrictions and constraints. There should be
no more than four alternatives at the end of this step.

3. Perform preliminary design calculations for unusual or unique

structural problems to verify that the remaining alternatives are
feasible.

4. Compare the advantages, disadvantages, and costs of the

remaining alternatives to determine the preferred alternative(s),
or go with these alternatives to a VE session.

5. Visit the project site with the Client, Geotechnical expert and the
Hydraulics engineers for final check (as needed).
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 Type
 Type of Superstructure is
based on the desired Span
Length.

 Span Length can be

determined based on “Best-
practices” design guidelines

 The optimal Span Length of

a bridge can be achieved
if the cost of the span = the
cost of the supporting pier
(Prove this statement)

 Type of Sub-structure is
based on the type of the
superstructure and site
limitations.

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 Type

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 Size
 Width: Based on traffic study and site limitations

 Span: based on optimal deck design,

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 Size

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 Location
Site Selection depends on several factors, the
Location should be:
1. connecting the road alignment stake-out with
least skewed trajectory (right angle crossing if
possible)
2. away from the road right-of-way
3. suitable for foundations
4. at firm and well defined banks
5. at streamline flow
6. along minimum crossing width

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Value Engineering (VE)
 VE is a review process and analysis of a design project.
 The VE defines the most cost-effective means of satisfying the basic
function(s) of the project.
 The study takes place at the concept or preliminary stage.
 Occasionally, a VE study examines a project with a completed PS&E
study.
 VE studies are normally required for projects with cost overruns.
 The VE team is headed by a facilitator and is composed of members with
different areas of expertises from the owner’s side and consulting firms.
 The VE team will determine the basic function(s) that are served by the
project, brainstorm all possible alternatives to serve the same function(s),
evaluate the alternatives for their effectiveness to meet the project’s basic
functions, determine costs, and prioritize and recommend alternatives.
 The VE team will prepare a report and present their findings to the owner
(to choose and approve the final design concept).
 Bridge designers may be asked to participate either as a support resource
or as a member of the VE team.
 VE studies usually take place over a three to five day period. Engineers
participating in VE studies and Cost-Risk Assessment meetings shall call the
Specifications & Estimate Engineers and double check all costs when
providing cost estimates at VE studies.
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 Example: TS&L
 Propose TS&L of an “overpass” bridge above proposed
highway?
 Approach:
 What if we have
1, 2,3 or 4 spans?

 Is the deck
depth an issue?
And does this
redefine the
feasible solutions

 List the optimal

cost of each
span
arrangement
and find the total
span cost

 What do you
recommend?

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 Scour

(AASHTO 2.6.4.4.2)
As required by Article 3.7.5, scour at bridge foundations is investigated for two conditions:

 For the design flood for scour, the streambed material in the scour prism above the total scour line
shall be assumed to have been removed for design conditions. The design flood storm surge, tide,
or mixed population flood shall be the more severe of the 100-year events or from an overtopping
flood of lesser recurrence interval.

 For the check flood for scour, the stability of bridge foundation shall be investigated for scour
conditions resulting from a designated flood storm surge, tide, or mixed population flood not to
exceed the 500-year event or from an overtopping flood of lesser recurrence interval. Excess
reserve beyond that required for stability under this condition is not necessary. The extreme event
limit state shall apply. If the site conditions, due to ice or debris jams, and low tail water conditions
near stream confluences dictate the use of a more severe flood event for either the design or
check flood for scour, the Engineer may use such flood event. Spread footings on soil or erodible
rock shall be located so that the bottom of footing is below scour depths determined for the check
flood for scour. Spread footings on scour-resistant rock shall be designed and constructed to
maintain the integrity of the supporting rock.

 Deep foundations with footings shall be designed to place the top of the footing below
the estimated contraction scour depth where practical to minimize obstruction to flood
flows and resulting local scour. Even lower elevations should be considered for pile-
supported footings where the piles could be damaged by erosion and corrosion from
exposure to stream currents. Where conditions dictate a need to construct the top of a
footing to an elevation above the streambed, attention shall be given to the scour
potential of the design. When fendering or other pier protection systems are used, their
effect on pier scour and collection of debris shall be taken into consideration in the
design.

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 Scour
 Scour counter measures:

 Relocation or redesign of piers or abutments to

avoid areas of deep scour or overlapping scour
holes from adjacent foundation elements,

 Addition of guide banks, dikes, or other river training

works to provide for smoother flow transitions or to
control lateral movement of the channel,

 Enlargement of the waterway area, or

 Relocation of the crossing to avoid an undesirable

location.

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 Scour
 The following is a basic design equations for preliminary footing design
only. Detailed Hydraulic analysis is required for Design Detailed Study.
 The nominal scour depth D in meters is
𝐷 = 0.475 3 𝑄/𝑓
Q = Design flood discharge in cu.m/sec
f = Lacy’s silt factor (depending on bed material)

Example: Assume flood discharge rate = 120 cu.m/sec. Estimate the footing
depth if the average particle size of the river bed material is 0.51mm and
the footing is located at a right angle bend.
Solution: f = 1.25 thus, D= 2.18 m, footing depth = 2.0*2.18 = 4.35 m
Nature of River Depth of Scour Type of Bed Soil f Size of particle (mm)
Straight reach 1.25 D Very fine soil 0.40 0.052
At moderate bends 1.50 D Fine Silt 0.60 0.120

At Severe bends 1.75 D Medium Silt 0.85 0.233

At right angle bends 2.0 D Standard Silt 1.00 0.323

or nose of pier Medium Sand 1.25 0.505
In sever swirls 2.5 to 2.75 D Corse Sand 1.50 0.725
31 Dr Adel Al-Assaf Heavy Sand 2.00 1.290
 Preliminary Design-Substructure
 Type of substructures – see next slides
 Selection Criteria
 Aesthetics
 Slender and Streamlines in waterways – minimum
resistance to flood flows
 Space limitation and side clearance
 Space limitation in foundation (Drilled Shaft systems
– usually for widening and limited footing space)
 Height of the pier (use hollow sections with proper
kL/r value)
 Standards and owner’s requirements
 Cost of shuttering/formwork

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 Preliminary Design - Piers

 Find preliminary dimensions based on the

following
 Find suitable shape (river, highway,…etc.)
 Acceptable kL/r value (around 22 up 50, but not
more than 100)
 Proper seismic demand, that is proper column
stiffness to attain certain fundamental natural
frequency (keep it above T – short to reduce the
demand)
 Proper steel ratio (not less than 1% but try to keep it
less than 4%; max possible is 6%) - Use interaction
diagrams to estimate the preliminary steel ration
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 Quiz
 Q: Define the ration KL/r?

 Q: Define the natural frequency of a bridge?

 Q: What is the stiffness of a column (single or double

curvature)?

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 Preliminary Design - Footing
 Selection Criteria
 Geological formation
 Bearing Capacity, depth of embedment, scour effect,
water table
 Provides overall stability
 in case of: footing B/6<e;
 User piles arrangement that provides acceptable
down-drag and compression demands
 Use drilled shafts
 Site limitations
 Right of way, utility lines, adjacent structures or walls…
etc.

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 Detailed Design
 Design for All Limit States
 Strength
 Serviceability
 Fatigue
 Extreme Event
 Constructability
 Develop Detailed Design Drawings
 To summarize and illustrate the design
requirements, assumptions and findings

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 Final Design
 Check All Limit States
 Strength, Serviceability, Fatigue, Extreme Event,
Constructability, …etc
 Develop Detailed for Construction Drawings
 Detail and optimize the design requirements
 Develop all construction details, including: bar banding,
joint details, , demolishing & construction schedules, tables
 Develop Specifications and Estimates
 Document the design requirements, material
specifications, construction requirements and
methodology
 Develop the estimated quantities, or resources for each
item.
 FIDIC and he CSI are the most commonalty used
specifications and estimate guidelines
 Develop Tender documents, contracts and ToR’s.
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 Typical Structural Drawings
 List of drawings
 General Notes
 Site Plan
 Foundation layout
 Foundations/piles details
 Abutments/Piers layout
 Abutments/wing walls/piers details
 Bearing pads layout
 Bearing pad details
 Deck/Framing plan
 Deck sections & details
 Post-tensioned spans profiles/schedules/details
 Expansion Joints Layout
 Expansion joints details
 Approach slab details
 General/Special details (railing, traffic barriers, signage, overlays,
sidewalks, future widening, )

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