Development Across the Life Span

Eighth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 2
The Start of Life: Prenatal
Development

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 Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
• LO 2.1: Describe how genes and chromosomes provide our basic
genetic endowment.
• LO 2.2: Compare monozygotic twins with dizygotic twins.
• LO 2.3: Describe how the sex of a child is determined.
• LO 2.4: Explain the mechanisms by which genes transmit
information.
• LO 2.5: Describe the field of behavioral genetics.
• LO 2.6: Describe the major inherited disorders
• LO 2.7: Describe the role of genetic counselors and differentiate
between different forms of prenatal testing.
• LO 2.8: Explain how the environment and genetics work together to
determine human characteristics.

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 Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
• LO 2.9: Summarize how researchers study the interaction of genetic and
environmental factors in development.
• LO 2.10: Explain how genetics and the environment jointly influence
physical traits, intelligence, and personality.
• LO 2.11: Explain the role genetics and the environment play in the
development of psychological disorders.
• LO 2.12: Describe ways in which genes influence the environment.
• LO 2.13: Explain the process of fertilization.
• LO 2.14: Summarize the three stages of prenatal development.
• LO 2.15: Describe some of the physical and ethical challenges that relate to
pregnancy.
• LO 2.16: What are the threats to the fetal environment, and what can be
done about them?

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 Earliest
Development

LO 2.1: Describe how genes and chromosomes provide our basic genetic endowment.
LO 2.2: Compare monozygotic twins with dizygotic twins.
LO 2.3: Describe how the sex of a child is determined.
LO 2.4: Explain the mechanisms by which genes transmit information.
LO 2.5: Describe the field of behavioral genetics.
LO 2.6: Describe the major inherited disorders
LO 2.7: Describe the role of genetic counselors and differentiate between different forms of prenatal testing.

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 Genes and Chromosomes:
The Code of Life
• Humans begin life simply
• Gametes from male and female join
• ovum and sperm
• Fused gametes create a zygote
• Resulting combination of their genetic instructions - over
2 billion chemically coded messages - is sufficient to
begin creation of a human

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 Contents of a Single Human Cell
• Genes
• Specific DNA sequences
• Chromosomes
• Rod-shaped DNA portions
in 23 pairs
• Contain genetic blueprint
for individuals
• Replicate through mitosis

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 Multiple Births:
Two - or More - for the Genetic Price of One
Are there different kinds of multiple births?
• Monozygotic
• Dizygotic
• Trizygotic
What causes multiple births?
• Fertility drugs
• Racial, ethnic, and national differences

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 Rising Multiple Births

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 Establishing the Sex
of the Child

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 Mixing and Matching of Genes
Basics of genetics
• Dominant traits
• Recessive traits
• Polygenic traits

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 Just the Right Type
Genotype
• Homozygous
• Heterozygous
Phenotype

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 Genetic Information Transmission (1 of 3)

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 Genetic Information Transmission (2 of 3)

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 Genetic Information Transmission (3 of 3)

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 Cracking the
Genetic Code
• National Human Genome
Research Institute

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 Table 2-1 Current Understanding of the Genetic
Basis of Selected Disorders and Traits
Behavioral Trait Current Beliefs about Genetic Basis
Huntington gene localized to the terminal portion of the short
Huntington’s disease
arm of chromosome 4.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Several potentially relevant genes have been identified but
(OCD) additional research is needed to verify.
Fragile X mental retardation Two genes identified.
Early onset (familial) Alzheimer’s Three distinct genes identified. Most cases caused by single-
disease gene mutation on chromosomes 21, 14, and 1.
Attention deficit hyperactivity Evidence in some studies has linked ADHD with the
disorder (ADHD) dopamine D4 and D5 genes, but the complexity of the disease
makes it difficult to identify an specific gene beyond
reasonable doubt.
Alcoholism Research suggests that genes which affect the activity of
neurotransmitters serotonin and GABA likely are involved in
risk for alcoholism.
There is no agreement, but links to chromosomes 1, 5, 6, 10,
Schizophrenia 13, 15, and 22 have been reported.

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 When Development Deviates from the Norm
• Causes
• Genetics
• Spontaneous mutation
• Environmental insult
• Disorders include:
• Down Syndrome
• Fragile X Syndrome
• Sickle-cell disease
• Tay-Sachs disease
• Klinefelter's Syndrome

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 Behavioral Genetics

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 Genetic Counseling: Predicting the
Future from the Genes of the Present
• DNA-based genetic tests are currently available for a
variety of diseases, including:
• Alzheimer’s disease
• Cystic fibrosis
• Fragile X syndrome
• Hemophilia
• Sickle-cell disease
• Tay-Sachs disease

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 Table 2-3 Some Currently Available DNA-Based Genetic Tests
( 1 of 3)

Disease Description
Adult polycystic kidney disease Kidney failure and liver disease
Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency Emphysema and liver disease
Alzheimer’s disease Late-onset variety of senile dementia
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Progressive motor function loss leading to
Gehrig’s disease) paralysis and death
Ataxia telangiectasia Progressive brain disorder resulting in loss of
muscle control and cancers
Breast and ovarian cancer (inherited) Early-onset tumors of breasts and ovaries
Charcot-Marie-Tooth Loss of feeling in ends of limbs
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia Hormone deficiency, ambiguous genitalia and
male pseudohermaphroditism
Cystic fibrosis Thick mucus accumulations in lungs and
chronic infections in lungs and pancreas

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 Table 2-3 Some Currently Available DNA-Based Genetic Tests (2 of 3)

Disease Description
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (Becker Severe to mild muscle wasting, deterioration,
muscular dystrophy) weakness
Dystonia Muscle rigidity, repetitive twisting movements
Factor V-Leiden Blood-clotting disorder
Fanconi anemia, group Anemia, Leukemia, skeletal deformities
Fragile X syndrome Mental retardation
Gaucher disease Enlarged liver and spleen, bone degeneration
Hemophilia A and B Bleeding disorders
Early-onset tumors of colon and sometimes
Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancera
other organs
Progressive neurological degeneration, usually
Huntington’s disease
beginning in midlife

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 Table 2-3 Some Currently Available DNA-Based Genetic Tests (3 of 3)

Disease Description
Myotonic dystrophy Progressive muscle weakness
Multiple benign nervous system tumors that
Neurofibromatosis, type 1
can be disfiguring; cancers
Phenylketonuria Progressive mental retardation due to missing
enzyme; correctable by diet
Decreased motor skills, cognitive impairment,
Prader Willi/Angelman syndromes
early death
Sickle-cell disease Blood cell disorder chronic pain and infections
Severe, usually lethal progressive muscle-
Spinal muscular atrophy
wasting disorder in children
Involuntary muscle movements, reflex
Spinocerebellar ataxia, type 1
disorders, explosive speech
Seizures, paralysis, fatal neurological disease
Tay-Sachs disease
of early childhood
Thalassemias Anemias

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 Table 2-2 Fetal Development Monitoring Techniques (1 of 2)

Technique Description
Amniocentesis Done between the fifteenth and twentieth week of pregnancy, this
procedure examines a sample of the amniotic fluid, which contains fetal
cells. Recommended if either parent carries Tay-Sachs, spina bifida, sickle-
cell, Down syndrome, muscular dystrophy, or Rh disease.
Chorionic villus Done at 8 to 11 weeks, either transabdominally or transcervically,
sampling (CVS) depending on where the placenta is located. Involves inserting a needle
(abdominally) or a catheter (cervically) into the substance of the placenta
but staying outside the amniotic sac and removing 10 to 15 milligrams of
tissue. This tissue is manually cleaned of maternal uterine tissue and then
grown in culture, and a karyotype is made, as with amniocentesis.
Embryoscopy Examines the embryo or fetus during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy by
means of a fiber-optic endoscope inserted through the cervix. Can be
performed as early as week 5. Access to the fetal circulation may be
obtained through the instrument, and direct visualization of the embryo
permits the diagnosis of malformations.

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 Table 2-2 Fetal Development Monitoring Techniques (2 of 2)

Technique Description
Fetal blood sampling Performed after 18 weeks of pregnancy by collecting a small amount of
(FBS) blood from the umbilical cord for testing. Used to detect Down syndrome
and most other chromosome abnormalities in the fetuses of couples who
are at increased risk of having an affected child. Many other diseases can
be diagnosed using this technique.
Sonoembryology Used to detect abnormalities in the first trimester of pregnancy. Involves
high-frequency transvaginal probes and digital image processing. In
combination with ultrasound, it can detect more than 80 percent of all
malformations during the second trimester.
Uses ultrasound to produce a visual image of the uterus, fetus, and
Sonogram
placenta.
Uses very high frequency sound waves to detect structural abnormalities or
Ultrasound multiple pregnancies, measure fetal growth, judge gestational age, and
sonography evaluate uterine abnormalities. Also used as an adjunct to other procedures,
such as amniocentesis.

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 The Interaction of
Heredity and
Environment

LO 2.8: Explain how the environment and genetics work together to determine human characteristics.
LO 2.9: Summarize how researchers study the interaction of genetic and environmental factors in development.
LO 2.10: Explain how genetics and the environment jointly influence physical traits, intelligence, and personalit
LO 2.11: Explain the role genetics and the environment play in the development of psychological disorders.
LO 2.12: Describe ways in which genes influence the environment.

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 Role of the Environment in
Determining the Expression of Genes:
From Genotypes to Phenotypes
• A given behavior is not caused solely by genetic factors;
nor is it caused solely by environmental forces
• Multifactorial transmission

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 A Range of Possibilities: Determinants
of Intelligence

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 Studying Development: How Much is
Nature? How Much is Nurture?
Nonhuman animal studies
• Controlling genetics and environment
Human studies
• Adoption
• Twin studies
• Family studies

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 Nature, Nurture, and Intelligence
What motivates this research?
• Relative contributions of nature and nurture are highly
researched
• Closer genetic link = greater correspondence of overall
IQ scores

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 Genetics and I.Q.

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 Genetic and Environmental Influences
on Personality: Born to Be Outgoing?
• Two of the “Big Five” personality traits are linked to
genetic factors:
• Neuroticism
• Extroversion
• Contentiousness
• Openness
• Agreeableness

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 Inheritin
g
Traits

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 Psychological Disorders:
Role of Genetics and the Environmen t

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 A Fundamental Principle
Within the debate about the relative influence of nature
and nurture on behavior:
• Role of genetics is often to produce a tendency toward a
future course of development
• Role of environment affects when and whether a certain
behavioral characteristic will actually be displayed

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 Can Genes Influence the Environment?
Three ways in which a child's genetic predisposition may
influence her or his environment:
• Active
• Passive
• Evocative

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 Prenatal Growth and Change

LO 2.13: Explain the process of fertilization.

LO 2.14: Summarize the three stages of prenatal development.
LO 2.15: Describe some of the physical and ethical challenges that relate to pregnancy.
LO 2.16: What are the threats to the fetal environment, and what can be done about them?

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 Fertilization: The Moment of
Conception

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 Stages of Prenatal Development
• Germinal (fertilization to 2 weeks)
• Embryonic (2 weeks to 8 weeks)
• Fetal (8 weeks to birth)

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 Stages of the Prenatal Period
Germinal
Fertilization to 2 Weeks
The germinal stage is the first
and shortest, characterized by
methodical cell division and
the attachment of the organism
to the wall of the uterus. Three
days after fertilization, the
zygote consists of 32 cells, a
number that doubles by the
next day. Within a week, the
zygote multiplies to 100 to 150
cells. The cells become
specialized, with some forming
a protective layer around the
zygote.
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Embryonic
2 Weeks to 8 Weeks
The zygote is now designated
an embryo. The embryo
develops three layers, which
ultimately form a different set
of structures as development
proceeds. The layers are as
follows:
Ectoderm: Skin, hair teeth,
sense organs, brain, spinal cord
Endoderm: Digestive system,
liver, pancreas, respiratory
system
Mesoderm: Muscles, bones,
blood, circulatory system
At 8 weeks, the embryo is 1
inch long.
Fetal
8 Weeks to Birth
The fetal stage formally starts
when the differentiation of the
major organs has occurred.
Now called a fetus, the
individual grows rapidly as
length increases 20 times. At 4
months, the fetus weighs an
average of 4 ounces; at 7
months, 3 pounds; and at the
time of birth, the average child
weighs just over 7 pounds.
 Germinal Stage
Fertilization  2 weeks
• Shortest stage
• Fertilized egg now called a blastocyst
• Travels to and implants in the uterus
• Characterized by methodical cell division
• With division comes cell specialization

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 Embryonic Stage
2 weeks  8 weeks
• Organism firmly secures to uterus and called an embryo
• Development of major organs and basic anatomy
Three distinct layers that ultimately form different set of
structures
• Ectoderm
• Endoderm
• Mesoderm

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 Fetal Stage
8 weeks  Birth
• Formally starts when differentiation of major organs has
occurred
• Organism now called a fetus
• Characterized by rapid development
– Organs become more differentiated and begin working
– Interconnections between body parts become more complex
and integrated
– Brain becomes more sophisticated

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 Body
Proportions

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 Pregnancy Problems
Infertility
• IVF, GIFT, ZIFT
Miscarriage
• Risk for anxiety, depression, grief
Abortion
• Mixed findings related to after-effects
• Generally short-term regret and guilt; increased risk of
future psychological problems for some

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 Older Women and Risks of Pregnancy

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 Teratogen
Sensitivity
Timeline

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 Mother's Prenatal Influence
• Diet
• Age
• Prenatal support
• Health
• Drug use
• Alcohol use
• Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
• Fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
• Tobacco use

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 Father's Prenatal Influence
• Relatively little research
• Tobacco use
• Drug use
• Alcohol use
• Treatment of mother

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