UNIT-5:

ACTUATORS:
• Types
• Characteristics of actuating system: weight,
power- to-weight ratio, operating pressure,
stiffness vs. compliance, Use of reduction gears
• comparison of hydraulic, electric,
pneumatic actuators
• Hydraulic actuators-proportional feedback
control
• Electric motors: DC motors, Reversible AC
motors,
• Stepper motors- structure and principle
Introduction-Types
• Actuators are the muscles of robots.
• If you imagine that the links and the joints are the skeleton of
the robot, the actuators act as muscles, which move or rotate
the links to change the configuration of robots.
• The actuator must have enough power to accelerate and
decelerate the links and to carry the loads, be light,
economical, accurate, responsive, reliable, and easy to
• maintain.
There are many types of actuators available.
– Electric motors
– Servomotors
– Stepper motors
– Direct-drive electric motors
– Hydraulic actuators
– Pneumatic actuators
– Shape memory metal actuators
– Magneto-strictive actuators
 Introduction
• Electric motors — especially servomotors — are the most
commonly used robotic actuators.
• Hydraulic systems were very popular for large robots in the past
and are still around in many places, but are not used in new
robots as often any more.
• Direct drive electric motors, the shape memory metal type-
actuators, and others like them are mostly in research and
development stage and may become more useful in the near
future.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTUATING SYSTEMS
Weight, Power-to-Weight Ratio, Operating
•Pressure
It is important to consider the weight of the actuating system, as
well as its power-to-weight ratio.
• For example, the power-to-weight ratio of electric
average.
systems is
• Stepper motors are generally heavier than servomotors for the
same power and thus have a lower power-to-weight ratio.
• The higher the voltage of an electric motor, the better
power-to- weight ratio it has.
• Pneumatic cylinders deliver the lowest power-to-weight
• ratio. Hydraulic systems have the highest power-to-weight
• ratio.
However, it is important to realize that in these systems, the weight
is actually composed of two portions. One is the hydraulic actuator,
• and the other is the hydraulic power unit.
The system's power unit consists of a pump, which generates the
high pressure needed to operate the cylinders and rams, a reservoir,
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTUATING SYSTEMS
Weight, Power-to-Weight Ratio, Operating
•Pressure
The actuators' role is only to move the joints.
• However, the power unit is normally and
stationary somewhere away from the robot itself. located
• The power is brought to the robot via an umbilical tether hose.
• Thus, the actual power-to-weight ratio of the cylinders is very high
for the moving parts.
• However, the power unit, which is very heavy, does not move and is
not counted in this ratio.
• If the power unit must also move with the robot, the total power-
to- weight ratio will be much less.
• The power that the hydraulic system delivers is also very high, due
to high operating pressures.
• This may range from 55 psi to 5,000 psi pressures. Pneumatic
cylinders normally operate around 100 to 120 psi.
• The higher pressures in hydraulic systems mean higher powers, but
they also require higher maintenance, and if a leak occurs, they can
become more dangerous.
Stiffness vs.
•Compliance
Stiffness is the resistance of a material against deformation.
• It may be the stiffness of a beam against bending under the load,
the resistance of a gas against compression in a cylinder under load
and so on.
• The stiffer the system, the larger the load that is needed to deform
it. Conversely, the more compliant the system, the easier it
deforms under the load.
• Stiffness is directly related to the modulus of elasticity of the
material.
• The modulus of elasticity of fluids can be around 1 x 106 psi, which is
very high.
• As a result, hydraulic systems are very stiff and noncompliant.
Conversely, pneumatic systems are easily compressed, and, thus, are
compliant.
• Stiff systems have a more rapid response to changing loads and
pressures and are more accurate.
• Obviously, if a system is compliant, it can easily deform (or
compress) under changing load or changing driving force, and, thus,
will be inaccurate.
Stiffness vs.
•Compliance
Similarly, if a small driving force is applied to a hydraulic ram, due to
its stiffness, it will respond more rapidly and more accurately than
a pneumatic system, which can deform under the same load.
• Additionally, the stiffer the system, the less it gives or deforms
under load, and thus the more accurately it holds its position.
• Now consider a robot that is used to insert an integrated circuit chip
into a circuit board.
• If the system is not stiff enough, the robot will not be able to push
the chip into the board, since the actuator may deform under the
resistive force.
• On the other hand, if the part and the holes are not perfectly
aligned, a stiff system cannot give enough to prevent damage to
the robot or the part, whereas a compliant system will give to
• prevent damage.
So, although stiffness causes a more responsive and more accurate
• system, it also creates a danger if all things are not always perfect.
Thus, a working balance is needed between these two competing
characteristics.
Use of Reduction
•Gears
Some systems, such as hydraulic devices, produce very large forces
with short strokes.
• This means that the hydraulic ram may be moved very slightly while
delivering its full force.
• As a result, there is no need to use reduction gear trains to increase
the torque it produces and to slow it down to manageable speeds.
• For this reason, hydraulic actuators can be directly attached to the
links, which simplifies the design, reduces the weight and cost and
rotating inertia of joints, reduces backlash, increases the reliability of
the system, due to simpler design and fewer parts, and also
reduces noise.
• On the other hand, electric motors rotate at high speeds (up to
many thousands of revolutions per minute) and must be used in
conjunction with reduction gears to increase their torque and to
decrease their speed, as no one would want a robot arm to be
rotating at such speeds.
• This, of course, increases the cost, number of parts, backlash, inertia
of the rotating body, etc., as was mentioned earlier, but also
increases the resolution of the system, as it is possible to rotate the
link a very small angle.
Hydraulic
•Actuators
Hydraulic systems and actuators offer a high power-to-weight ratio,
large forces at low speeds (both linear and rotary actuation)
compatibility with microprocessor and electronic controls, and
tolerance of extreme hazardous environments.
• However, due to leakage problems, which is almost inevitable in
hydraulic systems, and due to their power unit weight and cost, they
are not used any more.
• Nowadays, most robots are electric. However, there are still many robots
in industry that have hydraulic actuators.
• Additionally, for special applications such as very large robots and
civil service robots, hydraulic actuators may be the appropriate
choice.
• The total force that a linear cylinder can deliver can be tremendously
large for its size.
• A hydraulic cylinder can deliver a force of F = p x A lb, where A is
the effective area of the piston or ram and p is the working
pressure.
A hydraulic system generally consists of the following
parts:
1. Hydraulic linear or rotary cylinders and rams. These provide the
force or torque needed to move the joints and are controlled by
the servo valves or manual valves.
2. A hydraulic pump which is a high-pressure pump that provides
high- pressure fluid to the system.
3. Electric (or others such as diesel engine) motor, which operates
the hydraulic pump.
4. Cooling system, which rids the system of the heat generated. In
some systems, in addition to cooling fans, radiators and cooled air
are used.
5. Reservoir, which keeps the fluid supply available to the system.
Since the pump is constantly supplying pressure to the system,
whether or not the system is using it, all the extra pressurized
fluid, as well as all the returned fluid from the cylinders, flow back
into the reservoir.
A hydraulic system generally consists of the following
parts:
6. Servo-valve is a very sensitive valve that controls the amount and
the rate of fluid to the cylinders. The servo-valve is generally driven
by a hydraulic servomotor.
7. Safety check valves, holding valves, and other safety
valves throughout the system.
8. Connecting hoses, which are used to transport the pressurized
fluid to the cylinders and back to the reservoir.
9. Sensors, which are used to control the motion of the cylinders.
They include position, velocity, magnetic, touch, and other
sensors.
• There are many types of electric motors that are
used in robotics. They include the following:
– DC motors
– reversible AC motors
– brushless DC motors
– stepper motors
• Except for stepper motors, all other types of
motors can be used as a servomotor.
• In each case, the torque or power output of the
motor is a function of the strength of the magnetic
fields and the current in the windings.
• Some motors have permanent magnets (PMs).
These motors generate less heat, since the field is
always present and no current is needed to build
• Others have a soft iron core and windings, where
an electric current creates the magnetic field.
• In this case, more heat is generated, but when needed,
the magnetic field can be varied by changing the current,
whereas in permanent magnet motors, the field is
constant.
• Additionally, under certain conditions, it is possible that
the permanent magnet may get damaged and lose its
field strength, in which case the motor becomes useless.
• For example, you should never take a motor apart, as
the permanent magnet will become significantly
weaker.
• This is because the iron mass around the magnet holds
the field intact until they are separated.
• To increase the strength of the permanent magnets
in motors, most manufacturers magnetize the
magnets after assembling the motor. Motors
without permanent magnets do not have this
problem.
• One important issue in the design and operation of
all motors is the dissipation of heat.
• As with the heat generated in many other devices,
the generated heat in motors eventually becomes
the deciding factor about its size and power.
• The heat is generated primarily from the resistance of
the wiring to electric current (load related), but
includes heat due to iron losses, including eddy
current losses and hysteresis losses, friction losses,
brush losses, and short-out circuit losses (speed
related) as well.
• The higher the current, the more heat is generated, as W = RI2.
• Thicker wires generate less heat, but are more expensive, are
heavier (more inertia), and require more space.
• All motors generate some heat. However, what is important is
the path that the heat must take to leave the motor since if the
heat is dissipated faster, more generated heat can be dissipated
before damage occurs.
• Figure shows the heat leakage path to the environment for an
AC- type motor and a DC-type motor.
• In DC-type motors, the rotor contains the winding and
carries the current, and thus, heat is generated in the
rotor.
• This heat must go from the rotor, through the air
gap, through the permanent magnets, through the
motor's body, and be dissipated into the
environment.
• As you know, air is a very good isolator. Thus, the total
heat transfer coefficient for the DC motor is relatively
low.
• On the other hand, in an AC-type motor, the rotor is
a permanent magnet, and the winding is in the
stator.
• The generated heat in the stator is dissipated to the air
by conduction through the motor's body.
• As a result, AC-type motors can be exposed to
relatively higher currents without damage, and thus
they are generally more powerful for the same size.
• Stepper motors, although not AC motors, have a
similar construction; the rotor is a permanent magnet,
and the stator contains the windings. Thus, stepper
motors have good heat dissipation capability.
• Of course, another major factor in the difference
between brushed and brush-less motors is the life of
the brushes and commutators, as well as the physical
limitation of mechanical switching by brushes.
• Brushless DC motors, AC motors, and stepper motors
are all brushless, and thus they and are sturdy and
generally have long life (only limited by the life of
rotor bearings).