2.research and Sampling Design

Research Methodology (ECEG 7093)
Research Methods and Communications (ECEG 7035)
Chapter Two
Research and Sampling Design
Saturday, May 27, Haramaya Institute of Technology, SECE

2023
Research Design
2
 “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for

collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.”
 A research Design
 Conceptual structure within which research is conducted
 Constitutes the blueprint for
 Data Collection
 Measurement and
 Analysis of data
 Includes an outline
 writing the hypothesis to the final analysis of data
Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, SECE Saturday, May 27, 2023
Design Decisions
3
 What is the study about?

 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
Parts of Research Design
4
 The overall research design may be split into
 The sampling design:

 Deals with the method of selecting items to be observed
for the study
 The observational design:

 relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made
Parts of Research Design…
5
 The statistical design:

 concerned with the question of
 how many items are to be observed and
 how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed
 The operational design:

 deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational
designs can be carried out
Features of Research Design
6
 Research
 Specifies the sources and types of information relevant
to the research problem
 Specifies the approach(s) used for gathering and

analyzing the data.
 Includes the time and cost budgets

 most studies are conducted under time and cost budget
constraints.
Features of Research Design…
7
 Research design must contain

 a clear statement of the research problem
 procedures and techniques to be used for gathering

information
 the population to be studied
 methods to be used in processing and analyzing data
Important Concepts in Research Design
8
1. Dependent and independent variables:
 Variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative
values
 Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes): quantified on the basis of the
presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s)
 Continuous Variable: Phenomena which can take on quantitatively

different values even in decimal points
 It can assume any numerical value within a specific range. (Example Resistance
of semiconductor)
 Discrete variables: A variable for which the individual values fall on the
scale only with distinct gaps. Can be only expressed in integer values
(Example: no of children)
Important Concepts in Research Design…
9
 Dependent Variables: a variable that depends upon or is a

consequence of the other variable
 Independent variable: a variable that is antecedent to the

dependent variable
 For instance
 if we say that height depends upon age
 height is a dependent variable and
 age is an independent variable.
10
2.Extraneous variable:
 Independent variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study, but may affect the dependent variable
 Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a
result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described
as an ‘experimental error’.
3. Control:
 design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous
independent variables.
 Important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the
influence or effect of extraneous variable(s)
11
4. Confounded relationship:
 A relationship that exists When the dependent variable
is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s)
 the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is said to be confounded by an
extraneous variable(s)
5. Research hypothesis: a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship to be tested by scientific method
 It is a predictive statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable
12
6. Experimental and control groups:
 In an experimental hypothesis-testing research
 when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is

termed a ‘control group’
 when the group is exposed to some novel or special

condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
13
7. Treatments
 The different conditions under which experimental and
control groups are put are usually referred to as
‘treatments’
 For example if we want to determine through an experiment

the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on
the yield of wheat
 the three varieties of fertilizers will be considered as three

treatments
14
8. Experiment:
 The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to
some research problem
 For example, we can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a
newly developed drug
 Experiments can be of two types
 absolute experiment and
 comparative experiment
 Example:
 If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is an
absolute experiment
 If we want to determine the impact of fertilizer as compared to the impact of
some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative
experiment
15
9. Experimental unit(s):
 The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different

treatments are used
 Care should be taken in selecting (defining) such

experimental units
Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
16
 Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of

experimental designs:
 (1) the Principle of Replication
 (2) the Principle of Randomization and
 (3) Principle of Local Control.
Principle of Replication
17
 The experiment should be repeated more than once
 Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units

instead of one.
 By doing so the statistical accuracy of the experiments is
increased.
 For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two

varieties of rice.
 Option 1: we divide the field into two parts and grow one variety
in one the other in the second part
 (without applying principle of replication)
Principle of Replication…
18
 Option 2:
 Divide the field into several parts
 grow one variety in half of these parts
 the other variety in the remaining parts.
 collect the data of yield of the two varieties and

 draw conclusion by comparing the yield .
 The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison

to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle
of replication
 The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for
better results.
The Principle of Randomization
19
 Provides protection against the effect of extraneous

factors
 This principle indicates experiment should be planned
in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous
factors can all be combined under the general heading
of “chance.”
 By applying randomization principle we can protect
ourselves against the effects of the extraneous factors
 Through the application of the principle of
randomization, one can have a better estimate of the
experimental error
The Principle of Local Control
20
 The extraneous factor is made to vary deliberately over

as wide a range as necessary
 It needs to be done in such a way that the variability it

causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the
experimental error
Experimental Designs
21
 Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an
experiment
 We can classify experimental designs into two broad
categories
 informal experimental designs and
 formal experimental designs
 Informal experimental designs
 Designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis
 Based on differences in magnitudes
 Formal experimental designs
 Offer relatively more control and
 Use precise statistical procedures for analysis
Informal experimental designs
22
(i) Before-and-after without control design
(ii) After-only with control design
(iii) Before-and-after with control design
Before-and-after without control design
23
 Single test group or area is selected

 the dependent variable is measured before the
introduction of the treatment.
 The treatment is then introduced and
 the dependent variable is measured again after the
treatment has been introduced.
 The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of
the phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the
phenomenon before the treatment.
Before-and-after without control design…
24
 The design can be represented as
 The main difficulty of such a design is that with the

passage of time considerable extraneous variations
may be there in its treatment effect.
After-only with control design
25
 In this design two groups or areas (test area and

control area) are selected
 the treatment is introduced into the test area only
 The dependent variable is then measured in both
the areas at the same time.
 Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the
value of the dependent variable in the control area
from its value in the test area
After-only with control design…
26
 This can be shown in the following form
 The basic assumption in such a design is that the two areas are
identical with respect to their behavior towards the phenomenon
considered
 Data can be collected in such a design without the introduction of
problems with the passage of time
 In this respect the design is superior to before-and-after without
control design
Before-and-after with control design
27
 In this design two areas are selected
 the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for an

identical time-period before the treatment.
 The treatment is then introduced into the test area only
 the dependent variable is measured in both for an identical

time-period after the introduction of the treatment
Before-and-after with control design…
28
 The treatment effect is determined by subtracting

the change in the dependent variable in the control
area from the change in the dependent variable in
test area as
Before-and-after with control design…
29
 This design is superior to the above two designs

 it avoids extraneous variation resulting both from
 the passage of time and
 from non-comparability of the test and control areas
 But at times, due to lack of historical data, time or a

comparable control area
 we prefer to select one of the first two informal designs
Formal experimental designs
30
(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial designs
Completely Randomized Design (C.R. Design)
31
 Involves only two principles

 the principle of replication and the principle of
randomization
 It is the simplest possible design and its analysis
procedure is also easier
 The essential characteristic of the design is that
subjects are randomly assigned to experimental
treatments (or vice-versa)
…
32
 For example,
 Suppose we have10 subjects and
 We want to test 5 under treatment A and 5 under
treatment B
 the randomization process gives every possible group
of 5 subjects selected from a set of 10 an equal
opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and
treatment B
 One-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) is
used to analyze such a design
…
33
 Such a design is generally used when experimental

areas happen to be homogeneous
 That is, when all the variations due to uncontrolled

extraneous factors are included under the heading of
chance variation
Two-group simple randomized design
34
 Let’s see brief description of the design

 First the population is defined
 from the population a sample is selected randomly
 The samples are randomly assigned to the experimental and

control groups
 this design yields two groups as representatives of the

population
Two-group simple randomized design…
35
 The two groups (experimental and control groups) of

such a design are given different treatments of the
independent variable
36
 The merit of such a design is

 It is simple and randomizes the differences among the
sample items
 The limitation is the individual differences among
those conducting the treatments are not eliminated
 i.e., it does not control the extraneous variable
 Thus the result of the experiment may not depict a correct
picture
37
Example
 Suppose the researcher wants to compare two groups of students
who have been randomly selected and randomly assigned.
 Two different treatments are considered
 the usual training and
 the specialized training
 The researcher hypothesizes greater gains for the group

receiving specialized training
 To determine this, he(she) tests each group before and after the
training and
 compares the amount of gain for the two groups to accept or reject
his hypothesis
38
 This is an illustration of the two-groups randomized

design, wherein individual differences among students
are being randomized.
 But this does not control the differential effects of the
extraneous independent variables
 in this case, the individual differences among those
conducting the training program
 the teacher differences on the dependent variable were
ignored
 i.e. the extraneous variable was not controlled
Random Replications Design
39
 The limitation of the two-group randomized design is

usually eliminated within the random replications design
 In a random replications design, the effect the teacher
differences are minimized (or reduced) by providing a
number of repetitions for each treatment
 Each repetition is called a ‘replication’
 Random replication design serves two purposes
 It provides controls for the differential effects of the
extraneous independent variables and
 It randomizes any individual differences among those
conducting the treatments
Random replications design…
40
 The random replications design is illustrated in the following figure
Random replications design…
41
 There are two populations in the replication design

 The sample is taken randomly from the population available for study
and is randomly assigned experimental and control groups
 Similarly, sample is taken randomly from the population available to
conduct experiments
 Generally, equal number of items are put in each group so that
the size of the group is not likely to affect the result of the study
 Variables relating to both population characteristics are assumed
to be randomly distributed among the two groups.
 Thus, this random replication design is, in fact, an extension of
the two-group simple randomized design
Randomized block design (R.B. design)
42
 An improvement over the C.R. design.

 In the R.B. design the principle of local control can
be applied along with the other two principles of
experimental designs.
 In the R.B. design
 subjects are first divided into groups, known as blocks
 within each group the subjects are relatively

homogeneous in respect to some selected variable
Randomized block design (R.B. design) …
43
 The number of subjects in a given block would be

equal to the number of treatments and
 one subject in each block would be randomly
assigned to each treatment
 The main feature of the R.B. design is
 each treatment appears the same number of times in
each block.
 The R.B. design is analyzed by the two-way
analysis of variance (two-way ANOVA) technique
44
 Example:
 Suppose four different forms of a standardized test in
statistics were given to each of five students (selected
one from each of the five I.Q. blocks)
45
 Each student separately randomizes the order in

which he or she took the four tests
 The purpose of this randomization is to take care of
possible extraneous factors
 Example
 Fatigue
 Experience gained from repeatedly taking the test
Sample Design
46
 A sample design
 Definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population
 Refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher
would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
 Sample design
 Include the size of the sample, and is determined before
data collection
 We must select/prepare a sample design which should
be reliable and appropriate for the research study
Steps in Sample Design
47
(i) Define Type of universe

 Define the set of objects (the Universe to be studied)
 All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or

‘Population.’
 Universe can be finite or infinite
 In finite universe the number of items is certain
 Example: The population of a city, the number of workers in a
factory
 In an infinite universe the number of items is infinite
 we cannot have any idea about the total number of items
 Example: the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio
program
Steps in Sample Design…
48
(ii) Deciding on Sampling unit

 A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling
unit before selecting sample

 Sampling unit may be
 Geographical unit: such as state, district, village or

 Construction unit: such as house, flat or
 Social unit: such as family, club, school or
 An individual
 The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that should be selected for the study
49
(iii) Preparing Source list

 Source list (also known as ‘sampling frame’ ) from
which sample is to be drawn has to be prepared
 It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case
of finite universe )
 If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it
 The list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and
appropriate
 It is extremely important for the source list to be
representative of the population as much as possible
50
(iv) Determining size of sample

 Size of sample refers to the number of items to be
selected from the universe
 constitute the sample
 The size of sample should
 not be Excessively large or too small, it should be optimum
 An optimum sample fulfills the requirements of
 Efficiency
 Representativeness
 Reliability and
 Flexibility
51
(v) Parameters of interest
 For instance, we may be interested in estimating

the proportion of persons with some characteristic
in the population
 We may be interested in knowing some average

measure concerning the population
52
(vi) Budgetary constraint

 Cost considerations have a major impact upon
decisions relating to
 The size of the sample and to the type of sample.
 This can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample
53
(vii) Sampling procedure
 Finally, the researcher must decide about the technique

to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
 Among different sample design one must select design

which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has
a smaller sampling error.
Criteria of Selecting A Sampling Procedure
54
 Remember costs involved in sampling analysis

 the cost of collecting the data and
 the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data
 Researcher must keep in view the two causes of

incorrect inferences
 systematic bias and
 sampling error
Systematic Bias
55
 Systematic bias results from errors in the sampling

procedures
 It cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the
sample size
 The causes responsible for these errors can be detected
and corrected
 Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or
more of the following factors
Factors Resulting in Systematic Bias
56
1. Inappropriate sampling frame

 Inappropriate sampling frame or a biased representation of the
universe will result in a systematic bias
2. Defective measuring device
 If the measuring device is in error, it will result in systematic
bias
 In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire
or the interviewer is biased
 If the physical measuring device is defective there will be
systematic bias in the data collected through such a measuring
device
Factors Resulting in Systematic Bias…
57
3. Non-respondents:
 If we are unable to sample all the individuals
initially included in the sample, there may arise a

systematic bias
4. Indeterminacy principle
 Sometimes we find that individuals act differently
when kept under observation than what they do

when kept in non-observed situations
Factors Resulting in Systematic Bias…
58
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data

 Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data
 There is usually a downward bias in the income data

collected by government taxation department
 An upward bias in the income data collected by some
social organization
 People in general understate their incomes if asked about it
for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for
social status
 Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give
what they think is the ‘correct’ answer rather than
revealing their true feelings
Sampling Errors
59
 Sampling errors are the random variations in the

sample estimates around the true population
parameters
 They occur randomly and are equally likely to be in
either direction
 The expected value of such errors is equal to zero
 Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of
the sample
 It has smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous
population
Sampling Errors…
60
 Sampling error can be measured for a given

sample design and size.
 The measurement of sampling error is usually
called the ‘precision of the sampling plan’.
 By increasing the sample size, the precision can be
improved.
 Increasing the size of the sample has its own
limitations
 a large sized sample increases the cost of collecting data
and also enhances the systematic bias.
Characteristics of A Good Sample Design
61
(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample

(b) Sample design must result in small sampling error
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study
can be applied, in general, for the universe with a
reasonable level of confidence
Types of Sample Designs
62
 Sample designs are categorized based on two factors
 The representation basis and
 The element selection technique
 Based on the representation basis, the sample may be

 probability sampling: Based on the concept of random
selection
 non-probability sampling: Based on ‘non-random’ sampling
 On element selection basis, the sample

 Unrestricted sampling: Each sample element is drawn
individually from the population at large
 Restricted sampling
Types of Sample Designs…
63
Basic Sampling Designs

Non-probability Sampling
64
 Also known as
 Deliberate sampling
 purposive sampling or
 Judgment sampling
 In this sampling procedure
 We do not assume that each item in the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
 Items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher
 Organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular
units of the universe for constituting a sample as typical or
representative of the whole
Non-probability Sampling …
65
 Judgment of the organizers of the study plays an

important part in this sampling design
 In such a design, personal element has a great chance
of entering into the selection of the sample
 The investigator may select a sample which shall yield
results favorable to his/her point of view
 Thus, there is always a danger of bias entering into this
type of sampling technique
Non-probability Sampling …
66
 Quota sampling is also an example of non-

probability sampling
 In quota sampling
 The interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled
from the different strata
 some restrictions is given on how they are to be filled
 In other words, the actual selection of the items for the
sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion
Probability Sampling
67
 Also known as
 ‘random sampling’ or
 ‘chance sampling’
 Under this sampling design
 Every item of the universe has an equal chance of being
included in the sample (with/without replacement)
 individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process.
 Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether
one item or the other is selected
Probability Sampling …
68
 Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical

Regularity
 Law of Statistical Regularity states
 If on an average the sample chosen is a random one,
the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe
 This is the reason why random sampling is considered as
the best technique of selecting a representative sample.
Simple Random Sampling
69
 In random sampling (simple random sampling)
 Each element in the population have equal probability
of getting into the sample
 All choices are independent of one another
 Each possible sample combination have equal
probability of being chosen
 We can define random sample from a finite
population as a sample which is chosen in such a
way that each of the NCn sample combinations has
the same probability of 1/ NCn of being selected
Simple Random Sampling… Example
70
 Let a certain finite population have six elements (say

a, b, c, d, e, f ) i.e., N = 6
 Suppose that we want to take a sample of size n = 3 from it
 Then there are 6C3 = 20 possible distinct samples of the
required size
 These are abc, abd, abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef,
bcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, bef, cde, cdf, cef, and def
 If we choose one of these samples in such a way that each
has the probability 1/20 of being chosen, we will then call
this a random sample.
How to Select A Random Sample ?
71
 In simple cases
 write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper
 mix the slips thoroughly in a container
 then draw as a lottery
 blindfolded or
 by rotating a drum
 For the previous example, the probability of drawing any

one of the sample is 1/20 (since we have 20 samples)
 Such a procedure is obviously impractical in complex
problems
How to Select A Random Sample ? …
72
 Relatively easier
 write the name of each element of a finite population on a
slip of paper
 put the slips prepared into a box or a bag
 mix them thoroughly
 draw (without looking) the required number of slips for the

sample one after the other without replacement
How to Select A Random Sample ? …
73
 The probability of drawing any one element for our

sample in the first draw is 3/6
 the probability of drawing one more element in the
second draw is 2/5 (the first element drawn is not
replaced)
 the probability of drawing one more element in the
third draw is 1/4.
 The joint probability of the three elements which
constitute our sample is the product
 3/6 × 2/5 × 1/4 = 1/20
Complex Random Sampling Designs
74
 Probability sampling under restricted sampling

techniques may result in complex random sampling
designs
 Such designs may as well be called ‘mixed sampling
designs’
 Some of the popular complex random sampling
designs are
 Systematic sampling
 select every ith item on a list. Sampling of this type is known
as systematic sampling
Complex Random Sampling Designs…
75
 First element is picked at random
 Others are selected by picking every ith item on a list
 For instance, if a 4 per cent sample is desired
 the first item would be selected randomly from the first
twenty-five
 And every 25th item would automatically be included in the
sample.
 Thus, in systematic sampling only the first unit is
selected randomly and
 the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed
intervals
76
 Systematic sampling + points

 Can be taken as an improvement over a simple random
sample sampling
 as it is spread more evenly over the entire population
 An easier and less costlier method of sampling
 Can be conveniently used even in case of large
populations
 If the population list is in random order
 systematic sampling is considered equivalent to random
sampling.
77
 Systematic sampling – point

 If there is a hidden periodicity in the population
systematic sampling will prove to be an inefficient
method of sampling
 For instance if every 25th item produced by a
certain production process is defective.
 And If we are to select a 4% sample of the items of this
process in a systematic manner
 we would either get all defective items or
 all good items in our sample
 This depends upon the random starting position
Stratified sampling
78
 If a population is non homogeneous group

 stratified sampling technique is generally applied in
order to obtain a representative sample
 Under stratified sampling the population is divided

into several sub-populations (strata)
 Stratum is homogeneous than the total population
 To form the sample select items from each stratum
Stratified sampling…
79
 Merits of stratified sampling

 As each stratum is more homogeneous than the total
population
 we are able to get more precise estimates for each stratum
and
 And estimating more accurately each of the component
parts, we get a better estimate of the whole
 In brief, stratified sampling results in more reliable
and detailed information
Stratified sampling …
80
 The following three questions are highly relevant in

stratified sampling:
(a) How to form strata?
(b) How should items be selected from each

stratum?
(c) How many items be selected from each stratum

or how to allocate the sample size of each stratum?
81
 To form strata
 Items of same characteristic(s) put in each stratum.
 Ensure that elements are most homogeneous within each
stratum and
 Ensure that elements are most heterogeneous between the
different strata.
 Strata are purposively formed
 Usually it is based on past experience and personal judgment
 Items from each stratum can be selected by using either
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
82
 Size of sample in each stratum can formed by

following the method of proportional allocation
 If Pi represents the proportion of population included
in stratum i, and n represents the total sample size
 the number of elements selected from stratum i is n. pi

 Example:
 Suppose sample of size n = 30
 Population of size N = 8000
 Three strata sizez N1 = 4000, N2 = 2400 and N3 = 1600.
83
 Using proportional allocation

 For strata with N1 = 4000, p1 = 4000/8000 = 0.5
 n1 = n . P1 = 30 (0.5) = 15
 strata with N2 = 2400, p2 = 2400/8000 = 0.3

 n2 = n . P2 = 30 (0.3) = 9
 for strata with N3 = 1600, p3 = 1600/8000 = 0.2

 n3 = n . P3 = 30 (0.2) = 6.
84
 Proportional allocation is considered most efficient

and an optimal design
 If the cost of selecting an item is equal for each stratum
 If there is no difference within-stratum variances and
 If the purpose of sampling is to estimate the population

value of some characteristics
85
 In case the purpose happens to be to compare the

differences among the strata
 equal sample selection from each stratum is used
 In cases where strata differ
 In size and
 In variability
 We take larger samples from the more variable strata
86
 And use disproportionate sampling design by

n1 nk
 n2  ..... 
N1 1 N 2 2 N k k
 Where  1 ,  2 ,......., denote
k the standard deviations
 N1, N2,…, Nk denote the sizes of the k strata and
 n1, n2,…, nk denote the sample sizes of k strata
 The allocation is such situation results in
87 Example:
A population is divided into three strata so that N1 = 5000, N2 = 2000 and N3 = 3000.
Respective standard deviations are:  1  15,  2  18 and  3  5
How should a sample of size n = 84 be allocated to the three strata, if we want optimum
allocation using disproportionate sampling design?
Solution:
Sample size for strata with N1 = 5000 is
84(5000)(15)
n1   50
5000(15)  2000(18)  3000(5)
Sample size for strata with N2 = 2000 is
84(2000)(18)
n2   24
5000(15)  2000(18)  3000(5)
Sample size for strata with N3 =3000 is
84(3000)(5)
n3   10
5000(15)  2000(18)  3000(5)

2.research and Sampling Design

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Research Methodology (ECEG 7093)

Research Methods and Communications (ECEG 7035)

Saturday, May 27, Haramaya Institute of Technology, SECE

 “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for

 What is the study about?

 The overall research design may be split into

 The sampling design:

 The observational design:

 The statistical design:

 The operational design:

 Specifies the approach(s) used for gathering and

 Includes the time and cost budgets

 Research design must contain

 procedures and techniques to be used for gathering

 the population to be studied

 methods to be used in processing and analyzing data

 Continuous Variable: Phenomena which can take on quantitatively

 Dependent Variables: a variable that depends upon or is a

 Independent variable: a variable that is antecedent to the

6. Experimental and control groups:

 In an experimental hypothesis-testing research

 when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is

 when the group is exposed to some novel or special

 For example if we want to determine through an experiment

 the three varieties of fertilizers will be considered as three

 The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different

 Care should be taken in selecting (defining) such

 Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of

 (1) the Principle of Replication

 (2) the Principle of Randomization and

 (3) Principle of Local Control.

 Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units

 For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two

 collect the data of yield of the two varieties and

 The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison

 Provides protection against the effect of extraneous

 The extraneous factor is made to vary deliberately over

 It needs to be done in such a way that the variability it

(i) Before-and-after without control design

(ii) After-only with control design

(iii) Before-and-after with control design

 Single test group or area is selected

 The design can be represented as

 The main difficulty of such a design is that with the

 In this design two groups or areas (test area and

 This can be shown in the following form

 In this design two areas are selected

 the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for an

 The treatment is then introduced into the test area only

 the dependent variable is measured in both for an identical

 The treatment effect is determined by subtracting

 This design is superior to the above two designs

 from non-comparability of the test and control areas

 But at times, due to lack of historical data, time or a

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).

(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).

(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).

(iv) Factorial designs

 Involves only two principles

 Such a design is generally used when experimental

 That is, when all the variations due to uncontrolled

 Let’s see brief description of the design