CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH DESIGN

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

• Research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data.
• It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the
information needed to structure or solve research problems.
• It aids 'the scientist in the allocation of his limited
resources.
Good research design answer the following question
• What is the study about? (Type of study-exploratory or experimental etc)
• Why is the study being made? (The purpose of the study)
• Where will the study be carried out? (location or places to be covered by
the study)

• What type of data is required? (Primary or secondary or both)

• Where can the required data are found? (The sources of data)
• What periods of time will the study include? (Time frame)

• What will be the sample design? (Method of sampling and size of sample)
• What techniques of data collection will be used? (Questionnaire method,
personal interviews, schedules etc.

• How will the data be analyzed? (Analysis of data)

• In what style will the report be prepared?
• one may split the overall research design into the following parts:

(a) The sampling design: deals with methods of selecting items to be

observed for a given study?
(b) The observational design: relates to the conditions under which
observations are to be made.
(c) The statistical design: the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the data gathered are to be analyzed.
(d) The operational design: the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.
Need for research design:
Research design is necessary because:
• It facilitates the smooth sailing of the research operation
• It makes research project as efficient as possible and help
to yield maximum information with minimum
expenditure, time and effort.
• It helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form
where by it will be possible for him to look for flaws and
inadequacies
• Design will be given to others for their comment and
critical evaluation. In absence of such course of action, it
will be difficult for the critics to provide comprehensive
review of the proposed study.
Important Features of Research Design:
• It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
• It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used
for gathering and analyzing data.
• It also includes the time and cost budgets since most
studies are done under these two constraints.
• In brief a research design, at least contain:
– A clear statement of research problem.
– Procedures and techniques used for gathering
information.
– The population to be studied.
– Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
 Criteria of a Good Research Design:

• A research design appropriate for a particular research

problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:

(i) The means of obtaining information;

(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff

(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied;

(iv) The nature of the problem to be studied; and

(v)The availability of time and money for the research

work.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

i. Dependent variable : is a variable that is expected to be

influenced by the independent variable. If one variable depends
upon a consequence of the other variable, it is called a dependent
variable. This is a variable that is to be predicted or explained?
ii. Independent variable: is a variable that is expected to influence
the dependent variable.
iii. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to
the purpose of a study, but may affect the dependent variable are
termed as extraneous variable.
E.g., if some one wants to test the relationship between intensity
of light on the level of productivity, other variables like age of
workers, heat in the working place and personal problem of
worker may as well affect the level of productivity. Since they are
not related to the purpose of a study, they are called extraneous
variable.
iv. Control: The technical term ‘control’ is used when we
design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous
independent variables.
v. Confounded relationship: When the dependent
variable is not free from the influence of extraneous
variable(s), the relationship between the dependent
and independent variables is said to be confounded by
an extraneous variable(s).

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vi. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research: When the purpose of research is
to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research.
A research in which the independent variable is
manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-
testing research’ and
A research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research’.

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vii. Experimental and control groups: In an experimental
hypothesis-testing research:
when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed as a
‘control group.
But when the group is exposed to some novel or special
condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.

viii. Causation and Correlation

Causation refers to the relationship between two or more
variables. The variables are different and they are dependent
and independent.
The dependent variable is the outcome, the variable being
affected by the independent variable. The independent
variable is the cause that brings about a change in dependent
variable. 10
 Correlation refers to the regular relationship between
the dependent and the independent variables. Correlation,
however, does not necessarily show cause and effect
relationship between two sets of variables or occurrences.
Two or more variables may be correlated directly or
indirectly. However, the correlation does not show any
causal relationship.

Finding out whether a correlation between variables has

causal relationships involves using controls, which means
holding some variables constant in order to look at the
effect of one independent variable on the others.

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ix. Validity: refers to the problem of whether the data
collected is the true picture of what is being studied.

x. Representativeness: refers to the question of whether

the characteristics of a sample drawn properly
represents the characteristics of the population from
which the sample is selected and about which a
conclusion is to be made.

xi. Reliability: refers to the dependability of the research

findings that they can be repeated either by the
researcher or by other researchers using similar research
methods or procedures.
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xii. Treatments: The different condition under which
experimental and controlled groups are put are referred
to as treatment.

xiii. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a

statistical hypothesis, relating to some problem,
E.g., examining the usefulness of a newly developed drug
is an example of an experiment.

xiv. Experimental unit: the pre-determined plots (or

blocks or group) where different treatments are used
are known as experimental units.

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 Classification of Research Designs

Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Design Research Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Single Cross- Multiple Cross-

Sectional Design Sectional Design
Research design is a complex concept that may be viewed from 8
different perspectives:

1. Based up on the Degree of research Question crystallization: a

study may be viewed as exploratory or formal based up on the
degree of structure and the immediate objective of the study.

a) Exploratory: tends toward loose structure with the objective of

discovering future research tasks .Its immediate purpose is to
develop hypotheses or questions for the future.

b) Formal study: begins where the exploration leaves-off. It begins

with research hypotheses and involve precise procedures and data
source specifications. Its goal or immediate purpose is to test
hypotheses or to answer research questions.
2. Based on the Researchers control over the variables: In
terms of the researchers ability to manipulate variables
we differentiate between experimental and ex post facto
design.
a) Experimental design: the researcher attempt to control
and manipulate the variables in the study. It is enough
that we can cause variables to be changed or held
constant in keeping with our research objective.

b) Ex post facto design: the investigators have no control

over the variables on the sense of being able to
manipulate them. They can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
3. Based on the purpose of the study: The essential
difference between descriptive and casual
research designs lie in their purpose /objective.
a) Descriptive: it is concerned with finding out
who, what, where, when, how much. The
purpose is to describe.

b) Casual: it is concerned with why and how one

variable produce changing in anther. The purpose
is to explain causal relation among variables
under investigation.
e.g. experiment.
4. Based up on the time dimensions: based on the time
dimension of the research design can be classified as
longitudinal and cross- sectional.

a) Longitudinal: if the data collection for the research

taken place in multiple time points and the research is
undertaken in several time periods. The advantage of
longitudinal design is that it can track changes over
time and comparison of data across time is possible.

b) Cross- sectional: if the data collection is taken place in

single time point are research is undertaken in single
time period (i.e., carried out once and represent a
snapshoot one point in the time)
5. Based on the method of data collection, the study may be
observational or survey.

6. Based on the topical scope-breadth and depth-of the

study, a research may be case or statistical study /
Qualitative or Quantitative .
7. Based on the research environment, most business
research is conducted in a field setting, a research may
be laboratory research or simulation research.

8. Based on the subjects’ perceptions of the research, they

perceive deviations from their everyday routines.
 A Comparison of Basic Research Designs
Table 3.1
1. Exploratory
Objective: To provide insights and
understanding.
Character- Information needed is
istics: defined only loosely.
Research process is
flexible and unstructured.
Sample is small and non-
representative. Analysis of
primary data is qualitative.
Findings
/Results: Tentative.
Outcome:
Generally followed by
further exploratory or
Conclusive
To test specific hypotheses
and examine relationships.
Information needed is clearly
defined. Research process is
formal and structured.
Sample is large and
representative. Data analysis
is quantitative.
Conclusive.
Findings used as input into
decision making.
 Methods of Exploratory Research

• Survey of experts
• Pilot surveys
• Secondary data analyzed in a qualitative way
• Qualitative research
 A Comparison of Basic Research Designs
Table 3.2

2. Descriptive 3. Causal
Objective: Describe market Determine
characteristics or cause and effect
functions relationships

Characteristics Marked by the Manipulation of

: prior formulation one or more
of specific independent
hypotheses variables

Preplanned and Control of other

structured design mediating
variables

Secondary data Experiments

Methods: Surveys
Panels
Observation and
other data
 Use of Descriptive Research
• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as
consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas.
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified
population exhibiting a certain behavior.
• To determine the perceptions of product characteristics.
• To determine the degree to which marketing variables are
associated.
• To make specific predictions
 Methods of Descriptive Research

• Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative as opposed to a

qualitative manner
• Surveys
• Panels
• Observational and other data
 Uses of Casual Research

• To understand which variables are the cause (independent

variables) and which variables are the effect (dependent
variables) of a phenomenon
• To determine the nature of the relationship between the
causal variables and the effect to be predicted
• METHOD: Experiments
 4. Cross-sectional Designs
• Involve the collection of information from any given
sample of population elements only once.
 5. Longitudinal Designs

• A fixed sample(s) of population elements is measured

repeatedly on the same variables.
 6. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and

Objective
understanding of the generalize the results from the
underlying reasons and sample to the population of
motivations interest

Small number of non- Large number of representative

Sample
representative cases cases

Unstructured Structured
Data Collection
Non-statistical Statistical
Data Analysis
Develop an initial Recommend a final course of
Outcome
understanding action
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THANKS