SMART MATERIALS

*Designed Materials that have one or more properties that can be

significantly changed in a controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as
stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric or magnetic fields.
 What is a composite Material?

Two or more chemically distinct materials which when combined have

improved properties over the individual materials.

Composites could be natural or synthetic.

Wood is a good example of a natural composite, combination of cellulose fiber

and lignin.

The cellulose fiber provides strength and the lignin is the "glue" that bonds and
stabilizes the fiber.

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 What is a composite Material?

Bamboo is a very efficient wood composite structure. The components are

cellulose and lignin, as in all other wood, however bamboo is hollow.

**This results in a very light yet stiff structure.

****The Sword of Tipu Sultan

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 Composites
Composites are combinations of 2 materials in which one of the material is called the
reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in the
other material called the matrix phase.

Typically, reinforcing materials (strong with low densities) while the matrix is (ductile
or tough material).

Components of composite materials

Reinforcement: fibers Matrix materials Interface

Glass Polymers Bonding
Carbon Metals surface
Organic Ceramics
Boron
Ceramic
Metallic
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 Strength of Materials
Young's modulus of elasticity (E) is a measure of the stiffness of the material. It is
defined as the slope of the linear portion of the normal stress-strain curve of a
tensile test conducted on a sample of the material.

Yield strength, y, and ultimate strength, u, are points shown on the stress-strain
curve below.

Stress
u
Rupture

y
 
E
1
Strain,

• For uniaxial loading (e.g., tension in one direction only):  = E 

 Strength of Materials
The mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, electrochemical, catalytic
properties of the composite will differ markedly from that of the component
materials.

• Normal stress is the state leading to expansion or contraction. The formula

for computing normal stress is:
P P P
A
 L
A L

Where,  (stress), P is (applied force); and A (cross-sectional area). The

units of stress are N/m2 or Pascal. Tension is +ve and compression is -ve.

• Normal strain is related to the deformation of a body under stress. The

normal strain, , is defined as the change in length of a line, L, over it’s
original length, L.
L

L
 Composites – Polymer Matrix
Polymer matrix composites (PMC) and fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) are referred to as
Reinforced Plastics.

Common fibers used are glass (GFRP), graphite (CFRP), boron, and aramids (Kevlar).
These fibers have high specific strength (strength-to-weight ratio) and specific stiffness
(stiffness-to-weight ratio)

Matrix materials are usually thermoplastics or thermosets; polyester, epoxy (80% of

reinforced plastics), fluorocarbon, silicon, phenolic. 8
 Composites – Polymer Matrix
Reinforcing fibers
Glass – most common and the least expensive, high strength, low stiffness
and high density. GFRP consists 30-60% glass fibers by volume.

Graphite (99% carbon) or Carbon (80-95% carbon) – more expensive

than glass fibers, but lower density and higher stiffness with high strength.
The composite is called carbon-fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP).

Boron – boron fibers consist of boron deposited on tungsten fibers, high

strength and stiffness in tension and compression, resistance to high
temperature, but they are heavy and expensive.

Aramids (Kevlar) – highest specific strength, toughest fiber, undergoes

plastic deformation before fracture, but absorbs moisture, and is expensive.

The average diameter of fibers used is usually less than .0004 inch (.01 mm).
The tensile strength of a glass fiber could be as high as 650 ksi (bulk glass
Su = 5-150 ksi)
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 Applications of Reinforced Plastics
1920: Phenolic /asbestos fibers
(acid-resistant tank)
1940s boats were made of fiberglass. More advanced developments started in
1970s.

Consumer Composites (1970)

, recreational vehicles, bathwear, and sporting goods. In many cases, the
cosmetic finish is an in-mold coating known as gel coat.

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 Applications of Reinforced Plastics
The aerospace industry, including military and commercial aircraft of all types, is the
major customer for advanced composites.
Advanced Composites

These materials have also been adopted for use in sporting goods, where high-
performance equipment such as golf clubs, tennis rackets, fishing poles, and archery
equipment, benefits from the light weight – high strength offered by advanced materials.

There are a number of exotic resins and fibers used in advanced composites, however,
epoxy resin and reinforcement fiber of aramid, carbon, or graphite dominates this
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segment of the market.
 Composites – Metal Matrix
The metal matrix composites offer higher modulus of elasticity, ductility, and resistance
to elevated temperature than polymer matrix composites. But, they are heavier and more
difficult to process.

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 Composites – Ceramic Matrix
Ceramic matrix composites (CMC) are used in applications where resistance to high
temperature and corrosive environment is desired. CMCs are strong and stiff but they
lack toughness (ductility)

Matrix materials are usually silicon carbide, silicon nitride and aluminum oxide, and
mullite (compound of aluminum, silicon and oxygen). They retain their strength up to
3000 oF.

Fiber materials used commonly are carbon and aluminum oxide.

Applications are in jet and automobile engines, deep-see mining, cutting tools, dies and
pressure vessels.

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Ken Youssefi Mechanical Engineering Dept. 14
 Application of Composites

Lance Armstrong’s 2-lb.

Trek bike, 2004 Tour de
France

Pedestrian bridge in
Denmark, 130 feet long
(1997)

Swedish Navy, Stealth

(2005)

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 Advantages of Composites
Design flexibility
Composites have an advantage over other materials because they can be
molded into complex shapes at relatively low cost. This gives designers the
freedom to create any shape or configuration. Boats are a good example of
the success of composites.

Corrosion Resistance
Composites products provide long-term resistance to severe chemical and
temperature environments. Composites are the material of choice for
outdoor exposure, chemical handling applications, and severe environment
service.

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 Advantages of Composites
Low Relative Investment
One reason the composites industry has been successful is because of
the low relative investment in setting-up a composites manufacturing
facility. This has resulted in many creative and innovative companies in
the field.

Durability
Composite products and structures have an exceedingly long life span.
Coupled with low maintenance requirements, the longevity of composites is a
benefit in critical applications. In a half-century of composites development,
well-designed composite structures have yet to wear out.
In 1947 the U.S. Coast Guard built a series of forty-foot patrol boats,
using polyester resin and glass fiber. These boats were used until the
early 1970s when they were taken out of service because the design was
outdated. Extensive testing was done on the laminates after
decommissioning, and it was found that only 2-3% of the original strength
was lost after twenty-five years of hard service.

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Application of Composites in
Aircraft Industry

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 Disadvantages of Composites
Composites are heterogeneous
properties in composites vary from point to point in the material. Most
engineering structural materials are homogeneous.

Composites are highly anisotropic

The strength in composites vary as the direction along which we measure

changes (most engineering structural materials are isotropic). As a result,
all other properties such as, stiffness, thermal expansion, thermal and
electrical conductivity and creep resistance are also anisotropic. The
relationship between stress and strain (force and deformation) is much
more complicated than in isotropic materials.

The experience and intuition gained over the years about the behavior of
metallic materials does not apply to composite materials.

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 Disadvantages of Composites
Composites materials are difficult to inspect with conventional ultrasonic,
eddy current and visual NDI methods such as radiography.

American Airlines Flight 587, broke apart over

New York on Nov. 12, 2001 (265 people died).
Airbus A300’s 27-foot-high tail fin tore off.
Much of the tail fin, including the so-called
tongues that fit in grooves on the fuselage and
connect the tail to the jet, were made of a
graphite composite. The plane crashed
because of damage at the base of the tail that
had gone undetected despite routine
nondestructive testing and visual inspections. 

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 Disadvantages of Composites
In November 1999, America’s Cup boat “Young America” broke in two due
to debonding face/core in the sandwich structure.

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 NANOCOMPOSITES
A nanocomposite is as a multiphase solid material
where one of the phases has one, two or three
dimensions of less than 100 nanometers (nm)
 NANOCOMPOSITES
Constituents have at least one dimension in the
nanometer scale.

– Nanoparticles (Three nano-scale dimensions)

– Nanofibers (Two nano-scale dimensions)

– Nanoclays (One nano-scale dimensions)

 Properties of Nanocomposites

• Tiny particels with very high aspect ratio, and hence

larger surface area.

• Larger surface area enables better adhesion with the

matrix/surface.

• Improvement in the mechanical performance of the

parent material.

• Better transparency due to small size(>wavelength of

light).
 Nanoclays

• Silicates layers separated by an

interlayer or gallery.

• Silicates layers are ~ 1 nm thick,

300 nm to microns laterally.

• Polymers as interlayers.

• Tailor structural, optical

properties
 Nanofibers/Nanotubes
• Nanotubes in metal, metal oxide
and ceramic matrix have also
been fabricated.
Modulus ~1000 GPa (SWCNT)
~1200 GPa (MWCNT) • Nanotubes in polymer matrices
Tensile Strength ~ 100 GPa
by mixing, then curing.
Thermal 2000 W/m/K
Conductivity
Density 1300 –1400 kg/cm3

Length up to microns
• Most important filler category in
nanocpomposites
 Bio-Nanocomposite
Nano composites are found in nature also. It is found in
abalone

(small or very large-sized edible sea snail) and bones.

Synthesis of Nanocomposites

• Chemical Synthesis: 
1. Gas Phase Synthesis
2. Chemical Vapor Condensation
3. Combustion Flame Synthesis
4. Liquid Phase Synthesis
 Gas Phase Synthesis
(Synthesis of ultra pure metal powders/metal oxides(ceramics)

• The nano powder formed normally has

the same composition as the starting
material.

• * The starting material, which may be a

metallic or inorganic material is
vaporized using some source of
energy

• * The metal atoms that boil off from the

source quickly loose their energy.

• These clusters of atoms grow by

adding atoms from the gas phase and
by coalescence
 Gas Phase Synthesis
(Synthesis of ultra pure metal powders/metal oxides(ceramics) )

• A cold finger is a cylindrical device

cooled by liquid nitrogen. The nano
particles collect on the cold finger

• The cluster size depends on the particle

residence time and is also influenced by
the gas pressure, the kind of inert gas,
evaporation rate of the starting material.

• The size of the nano particle increases

with increasing gas pressure, vapor
pressure and mass of the inert gas
used.
 Chemical Vapor Condensation
• The precursor vapor is passed through a hot walled reactor.

• The precursor decomposes and nano particles nucleate in the gas phase.

• The nano particles are carried by the gas stream and collected on a cold finger.

• The size of the nano particles is determined by the particle residence time, temperature of the chamber, precursor
composition and pressure.

Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites by Mechanical Alloying/Ball milling)

*Originally invented to form small-particle (oxide, carbide, etc.)

dispersion-strengthened metallic alloys.

*Repeated breaking up and joining of the component particles.

By this process one can prepare highly metastable structures such as

amorphous alloys and nanocomposite structures with high flexibility.

Nanocomposites by
mechanical alloying
 Liquid Phase Synthesis
• Two chemicals are chosen such that they react to produce
the material we desire

• An emulsion is made by mixing a small volume of water in

a large volume of the organic phase.

• A surfactant is added. The size of the water droplets are

directly related to the ratio of water to surfactant.

• The surfactant collects at the interface between the water

and the organic phase.

• If more surfactant were to be added, smaller drops would

be produced and therefore, as will become apparent,
smaller nano-particles.
 Combustion Flame Synthesis
• Energy to decompose the precursor may be supplied by burning a fuel-air
mixture with the precursor.

• In order to reduce agglomeration of the particles in the flame, the flame is

specially designed to be low pressure.

• If you have observed the flame of a candle, you would have noticed that the
flame consist of a blue center and a yellow to red periphery.

• This is because the temperature in the flame varies with position in the flame.

• Such a variation in the temperature profile of the flame would cause

nanoparticles of different sizes to grow in the different regions of the flame.