國立清華大學材料科學工程學系

111 下學期課程

Materials Science and Engineering

II

Composite Materials

An-Chou Yeh/Andrew
葉安洲
Composite Materials
The definition is not very precise. The dictionary defines a composite as something
made up of distinct parts (or constituents), e.g. at atomic level: metal alloys, polymers,
ceramics; at microstructural level: many alloys that contain precipitates or different
phases; at macrostructural level: glass-fiber reinforced plastics. In engineering design,
a composite material usually refers to a material consisting of constituents in the
micro- to macroscale range, and even favors the macros. So the definition for
composites in this course is as following:
A composite materials is a materials system composed of a suitably arranged mixture
or combination of two or more micro or macroconsituents with an interface separating
them, that differ in form and chemical composition and are essentially insoluble in
each other.
In this section, you are going to learn about several types of common composites,
including (1) fiber-reinforced plastics, (2) concrete, (3) asphalt, (4) wood, (5)
sandwich structure, (6) Metal- matrix composite, (7) Ceramic-matrix composite.

1. Fiber-Reinforced Plastics:
A) Fibers materials: (1) Glass (2) Carbon (3) Aramid. Glass is by far the most widely
used reinforcement fiber due to its lower cost. Carbon and aramid fibers are used
mainly in aerospace application, in spite of their higher cost.
Glass:
• Glass fiber reinforced plastic composite materials have high strength-weight
ratio, good dimensional stability, good temperature and corrosion resistance
and low cost. The two most important types of glasses for making fibers are:
 ‘E’ Glass (used in applications requires high electrical resistivity):
52-56% SiO2, + 12-16% Al2O3, 16-25% CaO + 8-13% B2O3
 Tensile strength = 3.44 GPa, E = 72.3 GPa
 ‘S’ Glass (higher strength to weight ratio): Used for military and
aerospace application. 65% SiO2 + 25% Al2O3 + 10% MgO
 Tensile strength = 4.48 GPa, E = 85.4 GPa
 E glass has more glass modifying oxide (CaO), and S glass has more
intermediate oxide (Al2O3).
 Produced by drawing monofilaments from a furnace and gathering
them to form a strand. Strands are held together with binder.
Carbon:
• Light weight, very high strength and high stiffness. 7-10 micrometer in
diameter. Produced mainly from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or pitch 瀝青 ( a
number of solid polymers, e.g. asphalt).
• Steps:
 Stabilization: PAN fibers are stretched and oxidized in air at
about 200 C.
 Carbonization: Stabilized carbon fibers are heated in inert
atmosphere at 1000-1500 C which results in elimination of O,
H and N resulting in increase of strength.
 Graphitization: Carried out at 1800 C and increases modulus
of elasticity at the expense of strength.
 PAN carbon fiber: Tensile strength = 3.10-4.45 GPa, E =
193-241 GPa, density = 1.7-2.1 g/cc.

Aramid:
• aromatic polyamide 芳[香]族聚醯胺 fibers.
• Trade name is Kevlar
 Kevlar 29: Low density, high strength, and used for ballistic protection,
ropes and cables.
 Kevlar 49: Low density, high strength and modulus and used for
aerospace and auto applications.
 Hydrogen bonds bond fiber together (so fibers have good strength in
longitudinal direction, but weak strength in the transverse direction).
 Aromatic ring structure gives high rigidity in the main chain.
To compare these three types of fibers: Carbon fibers provide best combination of
properties, i.e. high strength and high stiffness (modulus). Due to favorable properties,
carbon and aramid fiber reinforced composites have replaced steel and aluminum in
aerospace applications.

B) Matrix materials: Unsaturated Polyester (reactive covalent bonds) and epoxy

resins are the two important matrix materials.
 Polyester resins: Cheaper than epoxy resins, but not as strong.
Applications: Boat hulls, auto and aircraft applications.
 Epoxy resins: Good strength, low shrinkage after curing. Commonly
used matrix materials for carbon and aramid-fiber composite.

C) Fiber glass reinforced polyester resin: fiber glass content and arrangement are
determining factors for strength.
 Higher the wt% of glass, stronger the reinforced plastic is.
 Nonparallel alignment of glass fibers reduces strength in particular
direction. If fibers are in random orientations, strength is equal in all
directions.
D) Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy resin:
 Carbon fiber contributes to rigidity and strength while epoxy matrix
contributes to impact strength.
 Exceptional fatigue properties.
 Carbon fiber epoxy material is laminated to meet tailor-made strength
requirements.

E) Equations for elastic modulus of a lamellar continuous-fiber-plastic matrix

composite: let us consider two extreme conditions (1) isostrain and (2) isostress:
assume bonding between the layers remains intact during stressing.

E f Em
E-1: Isostrain: Ec = EfVf + EmVm E-2: Isostress: Ec 
V f Em  Vm E f
Let's consider that isostrain and isostress are two extreme ends of a spectrum of
geometries. Then we can assume that the elastic modulus of any composite, Ec, can be
calculated from an equation like this:
Ecn = Vf Efn + Vm Emn

 n represents different geometries and will range between –1 and +1

o n = +1 corresponds to isostrain.
It is also the upper bound for particulate composites.
o n = -1 corresponds to isostress.
It is also the lower bound for particulate composites.
o n =1/2 corresponds to a relatively low modulus aggregate in a
relatively high modulus matrix.
“rubber balls in a steel matrix”
o n = 0 corresponds to a high modulus aggregate in a low modulus
matrix.
“steel balls in a rubber matrix.”
F): Processes: there are “open-mold” and “closed-mold” processes.
F-1: “Open-Mold” Process
• Hand lay-up process:
 Gel coat is applied to open mold.
 Fiberglass reinforcement is placed in the mold.
 Base resin mixed with catalysts is applied by pouring, brushing or
spraying.

• Spray-up process:
 Continuous strand roving is fed by chopper and spray gun/chopped
roving and catalyst resin is deposited in the mold.

• Vacuum bag-autoclave process:

 Long thin sheet or prepeg carbon-fiber epoxy material is laid on the
table.
 The sheet is cut and laminate is constructed.
 Laminate is put in vacuum bag to remove entrapped air and cured in
autoclave.
 • Filament winding:
 Fiber reinforcement is fed through resin bath and wound around
suitable mandrel.
 Mandrel is cured and mold part is stripped from mandrel.

F-2: “Closed-Mold” Process

• Compression and injection molding:
 Same as in polymers except that the fiber reinforcement is mixed with
resin.

• Sheet molding compound process:

 Highly automated continuous molding process.
 Continuous strand fiberglass roving is chopped and deposited on a
layer of resin-filler paste.
 Another layer of paste is deposited on first layer.
 Sandwich is compacted and rolled into rolls.

 The rolled up sheet is stored in a maturation room for 1-4 days.

 The sheets are cut into proper size and pressed in hot mold (149C) to
form final product.
 • Continuous protrusion:
 Continuous strand fibers are impregnated in resin bath, fed into heated
die and drawn. Used to produce beams, channels, and pipes.

2. Concrete
Concrete is a ceramic composite composed of coarse granular material embedded in
hard matrix of cement paste. Typical compositions of concrete: 7-15% Portland
cement, 14-21% water, 0.5 - 8% air, 24-30% fine aggregate and 31-51% coarse
aggregate.

Portland cement production: Lime (CaO), Silica (SiO2), alumina(Al2O3) and iron
oxide (Fe2O3) are raw materials. Raw materials are crushed, ground and proportional
for desired composition and blended. Mixture is fed into rotary kiln and heated to
1400-1650C and then cooled and pulverized.
Water to cement ratio determines compressive strength. Drinking and Non-Drinking
water can be used. Non-drinking water should be tested for level of impurities.
Aggregates make up 60-80% of concrete volume. Fine aggregates are of sand
particles and coarse aggregates are rocks. Air entraining agents are sometimes added.
Air entraining increases resistance to freezing and thawing and improved workability.
Facts to be considered:
 Workability
 Strength and durability
 Economy of production
Steel reinforcements are used to improve tensile properties as in bending. Otherwise,
concrete itself may not be able to withstand large bending stress.

Compressive stress are induced into the concrete to improve tensile properties by
introducing tensioned reinforcements (tendons). When the steel is tensioned before
concrete placement the process is called pre-tensioning. When the steel is tensioned
after concrete placement the process is called posttensioning.
• Pretensioned concrete: The tendon is first stretched and concrete is poured on
the tendon.

• Posttensioned concrete: Steel reinforcements are used to improve tensile

properties as in bending. Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which
the tendons are tensioned after the concrete has hardened and the prestressing
force is primarily transferred to the concrete through the end anchorages.
3. Asphalt (bitumen):
It is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of thermoplastic.
It is a hydrocarbon compounds (a thermoplastic material): 80-85% C, 9-10% H,
2-8% O, 0.5-7% sulfur and traces of impurities. Asphalt mixture (Asphalt +
Aggregate) is used primarily for paving roads; it is used as the glue or binder
mixed with aggregate particles. “Aaggregate", is a broad category of coarse
particulate material used in construction, including sand, crushed stone, slag,
recycled concrete…etc.

4. Woods
Wood is naturally occurring composite with polymeric material lignin and other
organic compounds. Its structure is nonhomogenous and highly anisotropic. As the
climates change, new layer of wood is formed in form of rings. Each ring has subrings:
earlywood (spring) and latewood (summer).
Softwoods (gymnosperms 裸子植物): Seed is exposed, retains its leaves (evergreen)
and physically soft. Examples: Fir 冷杉, Spruce 雲杉, Pine 松 and Cedar 柏

Tracheids 管 胞 : Long thin walled

tubular cells and constitute 90% of
volume.
Earlywood cells have larger diameter
and larger lumen than latewood cells.
Wood rays 射 髓 run from bark to
center of the tree. Used for food storage.
Hardwoods (angiosperms 被子植物 ): Seeds are covered, sheds leaves annually
(deciduous), physically hard. Examples: Oak 橡, Elm 榆, Maple 楓, birch 樺, and
Cherry 櫻桃
• Vessels 導管: Thin walled structure, made up of vessel elements and are large
than tracheids .
• Ring porous trees: Vessels formed in earlywood are larger than in latewood.
(e.g. oak)
• Diffuse porous trees: Vessels formed are more homogeneous (e.g. cherry).
• Fibers: Elongated cells, 0.7-3 mm length and 20 micrometers
in diameter (26-67 vol% Fiber), provide support.
• Rays in hardwoods are larger than those in softwoods.

Ring porous trees Diffuse porous trees

The wood cell’s wall consists mainly of microfibrils bonded together by a lignin
cement (phenolic unit). The microfibrils are consist of a crystalline core of cellulose
(glucose unit) surrounded by hemicelluloses (sugar unit) and lignin.
5. Sandwich Structures
Composite materials are also made by sandwiching a core material between two thin
outer layers.
 Honeycomb sandwich: Fabricated by adhesively bonding aluminum
alloy face sheets to aluminum alloy honeycomb core sections. Stiff,
rigid strong and used in aerospace applications.

 Clad metal structure: Metal core and thin outer layer of other metal
are bonded by hot rolling. Example: 1100Al/2024,7075Al
10 cent and 25 cent coins have cladding of Cu -25% Ni alloy over a
less expensive Cu core.

6. Metal-Matrix Composites
It uses metal as the matrix materials.
Continuous fiber reinforced MMCs: Continuous fibers are reinforced in metal
matrix – used in aerospace, auto industry and sports equipments. E.g. Aluminum
alloy – Boron fiber composite
 Boron fiber is made by depositing boron vapor on tungsten
substrate.
 Boron fibers are hot pressed between aluminum foils.
 Tensile strength of the composite comparing to the Al alloy: it increases
 from 310 to 1417 MPa and E increases from 69 to 231 GPa.

Particulate reinforced MMCs: Irregular shaped alumina and silicon carbide

particulate are used.
 Particulate is mixed into molten aluminum and cast into ingots or
billets.
 Al 6061 + 20% SiC
Discontinuous fiber reinforced MMcs: Needle like SiC whiskers (1-3 micron
diameter, 50-200 micron in length) are mixed with metal powder.
 Mixture is consolidated by hot pressing and then forged or extruded.
 Tensile strength of Al 6061 increases to 480 MPa and ‘E’ increases to
115 GPa

7. Ceramic-Matrix Composites
Continuous fiber reinforced CMCs:
 SiC fibers are woven into mat and SiC is impregnated into fibrous mat by
chemical vapor deposition.
 SiC fibers can be encapsulated by a glass ceramic.
 Used in heat exchanger tube and thermal protection system.
Discontinuous and particulate reinforced CMCs:
 Fracture toughness is significantly increased.
 Fabricated by common process such as hot isolatic pressing.
  Toughening is due to fibers interfering with crack propagation:
• Crack deflection: Up on encountering reinforcement, crack is deflected
making propagation more meandering.
• Crack bridging: Fibers bridge the crack and help to keep the cracks
together.
• Fiber pullout: Friction caused by pulling out the fiber from matrix results
in higher toughness.

Nanotechnology: Carbon nanotubes (5-10%) and 5% Nb powder integrated with

alumina. The composite can conducts electricity with fracture toughness increases by
5 times.