Government and Politics

Ideologies revision maps

UNIT 3 and UNIT 4
(Old specification)
Liberalis The State Constitutionalism

m
A history of Liberalism-
• Word derives from Latin= class of free men, not slaves.
• The term arose as a reaction to the collapse of the traditional feudal system (a system of social hierarchies and the emergence of a market system (capitalism)) in the
19th century. This caused a middle class to emerge, which caused conflict with the established monarchs and aristocracy.
• The US and French Revolutions embodied liberal ideas.
• Liberalism challenged absolute rulers, as they advocated constitutional and representative government. They supported freedom of conscience.
• In some societies, like those with collective cultures, a grounds for the development of socialism occurred, rather than western liberalism.
• The radical/reforming nature of liberalism faded, as the rising middle classes succeeded in maintaining their dominance.
• As industrialisation progressed, liberals began to question their early ideas. They came to believe that the state was needed to play a more important role, through
welfare services. This led to the development of two classifications of liberalism- Classical and Modern.
• The end of the 20th century was seen as a triumph of liberalism. Fukuyoma argued that it was the “End of society”- in that this was the end point of mankind’s
ideological evolution.
• A state represents political authority and therefore challenges individual freedom.
• However, liberals agree with Hobbs (state of nature),total freedom not genuine, because self-interested individuals will
limit the freedom of others. Locke-“Where there is no law, there is no freedom”
• The state should be limited to not encroach on rights, a necessary evil.
• The state is ‘evil’ as individuals can no longer be free in society, as sovereignty is passed from the individual onto the state.
• Liberal social contract theory - state is created by people, for people. Therefore should represent the people, only
intervene in the event of loss of freedom.
• The state comes from ‘below’- from the people - can be challenged or abolished by the people.
• Individuals are rational, but may be selfish. Protect individuals via a sovereign state.
• ‘Power tends to corrupt and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely’- Lord Acton . People may limit the freedom of
others in order to benefit themselves. A limited government is therefore necessary.
• Hobbes and Locke argue that complete freedom will lead to the state of nature, which in turn limits all freedom. The
rational individual will therefore create a social contract, through forming a sovereign state.
• The social contract embodies two liberal attitudes towards the state and political authority:
• Political authority comes ‘from below’. The state is created by individuals, for individuals. Citizens do not
have absolute obligation to accept government.
• Social contract theory portrays the state as an umpire or neutral referee in society. The state is a neutral
arbiter, between conflicting interests.
 Constitutionalism is the practise of limited government, through the enforcement of constitutional rules, practised
within government institutions and political processes.
 It is a set of political values that reflect a desire to protect liberty through internal and external checks on government
power. (EG- codified constitution, a bill of rights, separation of powers, bicameralism and federalism).
 Liberals support constitutionalism, due to their fear of power . They believe a constitution limits a state from
limiting freedoms. Due to view of humans as rational but self-serving.
 Constitutionalism can be achieved in two ways:
1. The powers of government and politicians can be limited by external legal constraints. E.G codified constitution.
2. Introduction of internal constraints, which disperse political power among a number of institutions and create a
network of ‘checks and balances’.
 The legislative, executive and judicial powers of government should be exercised by three independent institutions
thus preventing concentration of absolute power.
 Judicial independence must be respected in order for the principle to be upheld.

Key themes of Liberalism- Democracy

• The individual-
• Main focus of liberalism is the individual as a primary political unit. Classical Liberalism (theories of): FOR AGAINST
• Feudalism replaced with capitalism, people had choices in their lives encouraged to think for themselves.  
• Political philosophers began to develop to adapt to these theories, such as the ideas of ‘Natural Rights’. (Kant- individuals are of equal dignity and  Humans are rational and egotistical, meaning that they are naturally self-interested. Society is therefore atomistic, made up of separate individuals.
worth. People are ‘ends in themselves’.)  They believe in negative freedom, which is the absence of external constraints or restrictions. (‘The unencumbered individual’- Mill)
• Consent gives legitimacy to PLATO/MILL – Masses at
Differences in liberalism:  The state is a necessary evil (Paine). Necessary to protect freedoms and evil because it is a collective process and a restriction to liberty. government expense of Wisdom.
• CL -Atomism: Society does not exist, merely a group of individuals looking to benefit themselves. (Thatcher- ‘No such thing as  Experts should make
They have a positive view of human nature. They believe that the state should be minimal to allow people freedom. These free choices will lead to a balance in society. Through this
society’) - individual as ‘the proprietor of his own person or capacities, owing nothing to society for them’. they believe in free market economics (capitalism). decisions as some people
• ML -Developmental: Where people think as individuals and as a result wish to look after each other and create a better world.   are poorly educated and
This is more commonly linked with modern liberals. don’t exercise rationality.
NATURAL RIGHTS:
• Freedom-  Locke and Jefferson believe in the concept of naturally existing rights. These are entitlements that people have purely by being human.
• Individuals cannot exist if they don’t have rights. Freedom allows the individualchoices, so are able to live as they wish.  Two core natural rights;
• Liberty should only be limited if an individual is going to limit another person’s liberties. This view is presented by J.S.Mill. -The right to life and the right to liberty or freedom.
• Liberals agree on the value of liberty- not on definition of ‘free’.  Natural rights theorists therefore believe in the minimal state, which is upheld by the principle of ‘social contract’.
• Classical liberals argue that liberty is a natural right, allows to pursue their own interests.  The minimal state should only have three core functions: Its developmental – An Selfish short termism. May
• Modern liberals argue that the only condition in which people are able to develop their skills, fulfilling their own potential is one of freedom. exercise in rationality and limit economic growth
-Maintaining public order and protecting property
• Isaiah Berlin developed the ‘Two concepts of Liberty’; educative.
-Defence against external attack
• -Negitive Freedom; the absence of restrictions on an individual’s freedom to act (by bodies such as the state) -Ensure that contracts are enforced.
• -Positive Freedom; Ability of individuals to decide what they can and cannot do, as they have been allowed to develop their  “Government is best, which governs least”- Jefferson
potential. This may involve help from others such as the state.
• Reason- UTILITARIANISM: Achieves utilitarianism. Tyranny of the Majority –
• During the Enlightenment some began to think that people were able to work out, in a logical fashion, what was in their best interests.  Some classical liberals rejected the idea that rights were naturally forming, and instead developed the principle of utilitarianism. Majority rule and the
• ‘Reason’ implies that people are able to logically make their own decisions (against paternalism).  minority groups are
Bentham described natural rights as ‘nonsense on stilts’, arguing that they did not exist. Utilitarianism is a moral principle based on the promotion of happiness and the prevention of
• Reason links to liberalism and human nature as people can logically make their own decisions. ignored. Limits individual
suffering, for the greatest number of people. They argue that this principle should guide liberal thinking. Policy is therefore guided on the principle of utility. freedom.
• Liberals generally view human history in terms of progress, literally in terms of moving forward (expansion of knowledge->better understanding).  This principle is adopted by liberals who believe in a minimal state. Only individuals can judge their own pleasure and pain, because they are individual and unique. Therefore, the state
• Reason and logic will lead to peaceful solutions, war is a last resort. The use of force is merely a final resort, after reason and debate has been cannot make decisions for them.
attempted.  Utilitarians have been criticized by other liberals because their theories are seems as majoritarian, as they seem to sacrifice the needs of minority or individual, for the majority.
• Education is also important as a means of self-development and achieving social advancement.
• There is, however, a risk of egoism taking over and leading to conflict or rivalry, thus meaning that liberals do not subscribe to the idea of human ECONOMIC LIBERALISM:
perfectibility. Protects against tyranny Can produce dangerously
 Believe in individual economic freedom. This is a rejection of internationalist (mercantilist) economic theory. powerful populists.
   Classical liberals believe that a free market, based on market forces (supply and demand) will benefit all. This means that all trade is a series of individual relationships and contracts.
• Justice:  Economic freedom desirable because people are rational and capable, but also that it will lead to general utility, in that competitive trade creates value and equality.
• Actions rewarded or punished, social justice is about providing people with their ‘fair share’ to exist in society.  Economic liberalism was developed by thinkers such as Adam Smith and he argued that through the liberal theory of human nature, free market capitalism was desirable. Not only could
• Liberals believe in justice because they believe in different kinds of equality. Harmony in diverse society Threatens property rights
people make rational, self-interested choices, but also the market would self-regulate free from human greed or self-interest. Smith called the market forces that regulate an economy,
• Foundation equality: born equal- therefore have some rights and moral worth. Individualism supports this. “the invisible hand of capitalism”.
• Formal equality- no human should be give social status above others - The most important type of equality is political or legal equality, in that the  A belief in classical liberal economics developed from the industrial revolution onwards. It became represented by no or little state intervention. This ‘lassiez-faire’ belief supported the
state must treat everyone the same. idea that the unrestrained pursuit of profit would lead to general prosperity. These ideas were only challenged by the Great Depression of the 1930s.
• Equality in opportunity, in that meritocracy is promoted and everyone has the chance to achieve something.
• Differences in liberal thinking: SOCIAL DARWINISM:
• CL - The state should leave people alone and let them achieve what they can from birth, regardless of their situation at birth.  Classical liberals focus their belief on individualism in terms of a rejection of social welfare. They believe in natural meritocracy, that individuals should be judged, succeed or fail based
• ML - The state should try to raise the less privileged to give them an equal opportunity to achieve the same as others. on their willingness to work and talents. This was expressed by Smiles’ book ‘self help’- “Heaven will only help those who help themselves”.
• Social equality is not desirable due to individual differences- some willing to work much harder than others.  The liberal belief in laissez-faire ideas suggests that individuals should be self-reliant and if they wish to change their circumstances, they must do it themselves.
• Modern liberals suggest that some level of social equality is needed. Rawls - economic inequality only justifiable if it works to benefit the poorest.  Spencer explained these ideas in relation to Darwin’s theory of evolution- ‘ the survival of the fittest’. This was applied to society by both Spencer and Sumner as an argument against
• Classical liberals endorse meritocracy on economic and moral grounds. They place a heavy emphasis on the need for incentives. social welfare. “The drunk in the gutter is just where he ought to be”.
 
• Toleration: NEO-LIBERALISM:
• An acceptance of pluralism rooted in the principle of individualism, assumption that humans are separate and unique creatures.  From the 1970s onwards, liberals began to challenge increased state intervention and argue for a reinvention of classical liberal economics. This was based on economic ‘stagflation’,
• Toleration is the acceptance of differences. - Volitare- ‘I detest what you say but I defend to the death your right to say it’. which seemed to support a need for change in economic theory. These ideas were most strongly supported in the US and the UK, and became known as ‘Reaganism’ and ‘Thatcherism’.
• Ethical and social justification for toleration:  Neo-liberal economics became part of New Right theory and is based on ‘market fundamentalism’ (extreme support for the free market). This is a believe that the state should have
• Ethics is an idea of a code of conduct that people should set themselves on how to behave around others. minimal involvement in the economy. Thinkers such as Friedman and Hayek strongly attacked state planning and intervention in economics.
• Social toleration is a rule by which people are expected to behave towards others by people in society.  Neo-liberals challenge post-war Keynesian economics, arguing that a state could not efficiently manage an economy, as it is too complex. Key neo-liberal policies were privatisation, low
• Toleration was adopted by liberals in the 16 th century, when people such as Locke argued for religious toleration. Locke- the state has no right to government spending and low taxation.
‘meddle with men’s souls’.  Neo-liberals support the free market for several key reasons:
• Mill argues that toleration is necessary for health of society as a whole. In a free market of ideas, the ‘truth’ will emerge as good ideas will replace -The market is thought to be self-regulating and more efficient.
bad ones and ignorance banished. Contest, debate and argument are therefore the motor of social progress. -Markets lead to prosperity because they are run by the profit motive.
• However, how do you fight for toleration if it means allowing people you cannot stand to have their way of life and point of view. EG-BNP has -Through supply and demand, markets channel resources to where they need to be.
extreme non-tolerant views.
• Toleration promotes social harmony, especially if it promotes debate and education. Understanding another person’s ideas will allow people to
work and live together more efficiently.
 Liberal Doctrine Classical Modern
Modern Liberalism (theories of):
Free market economy ✔
 
 During 19th & 20th century, some liberals began to re-examine the nature of individualism and the role of the state. Egotistical individualism ✔
 Industrialization led to inequalities and poverty, which led to many liberals calling for a change. Freedom would be enhanced enabling people.
 CL say ML abandoned liberalism- ‘collective state’. Modern liberals say state can be used to create individual freedom.
Developmental individualism ✔
 
DEVELOPMENTAL INDIVIDUALISM:
 Re-interpretation of individualism and freedom. Mill’s ‘developmental individualism’. Belief that when left alone people are unable to develop beyond what Mill calls ‘lower Welfare ✔
pleasures’, therefore they were not free.
 Mill - intervention and education, leads to understanding more complex pleasures, thus more freedom. Positive freedom ✔
 This created a justification for an interventionist state, that provided opportunities and challenged barriers to freedom.
Negative freedom ✔
POSITIVE FREEDOM:
 Inequality and poverty of capitalism restricted freedoms for the benefit of the minority. Green argued that humans should be free to realise their potential.
 Modern liberals - more altruistic view of human nature - society should try to create freedom for all, positive freedom. Green argued that individuals should be protected
from social barriers.
 Instead of state intervention can be used to create better life chances and opportunities. Freedom can only exist if the correct social conditions allow it. Trigger notes version
 Classical liberals say positive freedom is socialism, collectivisation and the use of state. Modern liberals argue - still focussed on individual choice and freedom.

SOCIAL LIBERALISM (WELFARE):

  • Origins & Developments
•
Modern examples
Capitalism
• Lib Dem promise for free university
 ML since 20th century - minimal state was bad for society and individual. Poverty and ignorance undermines individual and freedom.
 Modern liberals believe that social welfare is a priority for creating individual freedom. • Enlightenment
 CL say welfare is ‘collectivisation’. ML argue that they are trying to create a greater opportunity of equality and freedom by making peoples life chances more equal. NOT
equality of outcome. • Core Values



During the 20th century, liberals saw social welfare as a priority for individual freedom. They developed into social democratic liberals and began to see equality as fairness or
‘social justice’.
EG: Rawls argued that social justice would be supported by anyone who did not know what their own social circumstance were.
•
•
Individual
Reason
fee’s in 2010 shows commitment to
ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT (KEYNESIANISM):
 Modern liberals argue that modern industrial economics do not provide general prosperity without economic management, thus rejecting the ‘invisible hand of the free
market’ and laissez-faire values.
•
•
Freedom
Justice positive freedom.
•
• Lib Dem’s oppose any attempt to
 This argument re-occurred in the 1970s by neo-liberal economists and the New Right. Their ideas are based on the works of Keynes, who argued that governments should Tolerance

manage their economies by controlling demand. They could do this through different measures such as state spending and taxation levels.
Keynes argued that a state should borrow and run a budget deficit, meaning that the state is overspending. This can be paid for by future taxation. This still shows support for
• The State
capitalism, but is state managed capitalism. • Contract
 Classical liberals rejected Keynesian economics as being state managed, collectivised and inefficient. They argue that the economy is too complex to be managed

•
• Limited
Constitutionalism
leave the ECHR – shows commitment
•
•
Internal
External
to inalienable rights.
Thinkers • Consent
• John Locke (1632-1704) – Thought humans were free and equal by nature. However he • Democracy
upheld property rights so didn’t support political equality or democracy. •
• Outcry at May’s suggestion that the
Classic Liberalism
• Adam Smith (1723-90) – Wealth of nations, proposed unregulated free markets and • Natural Rights
• Utilitarianism
suggested they would create social order. (Invisible hand).
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – Believed laws of reason dictate our actions , treat others as
•
•
Economic Liberalism
Social Darwinism
ECHR may be replaced by a British Bill
ends not just means.
• Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) – Against strong central government, third US president, •
• Neo Liberalism
Modern Liberalism
of Rights shows the influence that
did believe in natural aristocracy though.
•
•
Developmental Individualism
Positive Freedom liberalism has had on society.
• Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) – Father of Utilitarianism, used to justify laissez-faire • Social Liberalism
economics. • Economic management
• James Madison (1751-1836) - Strong advocate of the separation of powers, supported • Thinkers
• Locke
pluralism. • Smith
• John Stuart Mill (1806-73) – pleasures, utilitarianism, individualism, opposed collectivism. • Kant
• T.H.Green (1836-82) – Highlighted limitations of early/classic liberal doctrines. Positive • Jefferson
• Mill
freedom,. Thinks humans are naturally social and want to help one another, advocated
• Bentham
welfare. • Green
• John Rawls (1921-2002) – Justice as fairness, veil of ignorance, tried to reconcile liberalism • Madison
with redistribution and social justice. • Rawls
Conservatism
Types of conservatism (TRADITIONAL): Types of conservatism (NEW RIGHT):

 Authoritarian Conservatism: Origins: The NR emerged as a result of multiple reasons-

 Authority is the right to influence others by virtue of an acknowledged obligation to obey. Modern conservatives would  Permissiveness: an attitude of ‘do what you like’, deriving from the ‘hippies’ in the ‘60s and ‘70s.
believe in authority rather than authoritarianism. This may be due to their support of democratic practises;  Welfare: The NR believed that benefits and social welfare removed the incentive for people to work.
authoritarianism is no longer a population part of conservatism.  Keynesianism: The government managing the economy apparently led to the inefficiency in the economy and society.
 Authoritarianism is the practise of government ‘from above’, in which authority is exercised over a population with or  Discontent: The trade unions went on strike, which led to economic and social issues, leading to the view that trade unions were negative. For
without consent. Authoritarian thinkers would argue that order can only be maintained through unquestioned obedience. example, the Winter of Discontent.
EXAMPLES:  Morality: The NR valued morality as they believed that permissiveness led to a lack of morality, for example through video and media.
 Opposition to the French Revolution: Joseph de Maistre was a critic of the French Rev. as he believed that the absolute  Discipline: Welfare and lack of morality led to people lacking discipline and there had been few standards of behaviour. Both discipline and morality
History of conservatism: monarch should be restored. De Maistre argued that above the monarch, a supreme spiritual power should rule; the could be achieved through the nuclear family.
 Arose as a reaction to political, social and economic change. pope.  
 Burke’s views on the French Revolution was put in his book “Reflections on the Revolution in France”. He defended   Core ideas:
conservative ideas in his writings, as the revolution spread ideas of liberalism.  Tsarist Russia: Tsar Nicholas I proclaimed the principles of ‘orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality’. His successors would not  Cut taxes, leaving more money to put into the economy.
 Conservatism adapted to different countries, to preserve different customs and traditions; the restrained by other institutions.  Censor television and film (previous rise of ‘video nasties’).
 UK:  Curb immigration.
UK conservatives defended a political and social order which had also undergone huge change in the  19th Century Italy: In 1864, Pope Pius IX condemned all radical or progressive ideas, including those of nationalism,  Free market economics
‘glorious revolution’. British conservatism was also based upon the ideas ordof Burke- “Change in order to liberalism and socialism.  Small government
conserve”.  Promote family values
 Continental Europe:  19th Century France: Napoleonic regime was a result of an election- he appealed to the French peasantry with the promise  Harsher punishment for criminals
A more authoritarian form of conservatism developed, which defended the absolutist monarchy against of prosperity and social reform.  Return to ‘traditional values’. EG: Section 28.
reform. It was only after WW2, that continental conservatives accepted democracy and social reform.  
 USA:  20th Century Argentina: Peron proclaimed themes of obedience, order and national unity. Neo-Liberalism: (economics based)
The US constitution reflected liberal ideas, with both the Republicans and the Democrats resenting the   Return to classical liberal economics. Entails a commitment to the free market, critical of government intervention, inclusive of the welfare state. (Friedrich von
label of conservatism. It was only in the 1960s that conservatism was accepted, namely in the Reagan-wing  Paternalistic Conservatism: Hayak and Milton Friedman).
of the Republican party in the 1980s.  Paternalism means to act in a fatherly fashion, with power and authority being exercised over others with the intention  
 Asia: of conferring benefit or preventing harm. Examples of paternalistic legislation includes anti-drugs laws, driving laws, age The Liberal New Right (neo-liberalism):
Political movements sought to resist change and preserve ways of life, but conservative arguments and laws around alcohol, NHS, compulsory education.  Came about as a response to the failure of Keynesian economics in the ‘70s. It was argued that there were inefficiencies in state provisions.
values were not fully accepted. The Liberal Democratic Party in Japan has dominated Japanese politics  In some cases, paternalism may restrict freedom.  ‘Public bad, private good’. This implies that state owned institutions are inefficient. If privately owned, competition raises standards. The state
with their conservative values.   should also not intervene in the market as it would be ‘too complex’ to manage supply and demand.
  

One Nation:
Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative PM 1868, 1874-80) emphasised the principle of social obligation, in contract to the
 Friedman argued that the problem with Keynesianism was that it led to inflation due to creating demand and therefore jobs and employment.
Thatcher’s policy on unemployment was to allow it to rise, through cutting public spending and subsides to businesses. This was in order to
‘laissez-faire’ approach of the time. He was concerned about the growth of industrialisation, economic inequality and the prevent inflation and rises in taxes.
threat of revolutionary activity; he argued that Britain was in danger of being divided into two nations; ‘the rich and the  The LNR disapproved of taxation. Nozick argued that taxation was ‘legalised theft’. It was argued to be a violation of free property rights.
poor’.  Inflation was dangerous, according to Friedman, as it could lead to people losing faith in their ability to create wealth, which would weaken society.
Key themes of conservatism:
 Disraeli also argued that those who were privileged had an obligation to look after those who were less fortunate. It was  The LNR aimed to create a smaller state, as they view the state as the enemy of personal freedom.
 
argued that this was ‘the price of privilege’ ; this was otherwise known as ‘noblesse oblige’. However, there may be an  They disliked welfare provisions as it prevented ‘social Darwinism’. Welfare arguably leads to inflation and increased taxes, creating a culture of
 Tradition:
 underlying motive to this, as if the elites gain the support of the working classes, they retain their power. dependency.
Established customs and traditions, important because are God-given, therefore beyond question.
 One Nation Conservatism reached its peak in the ‘post-war consensus’ in the 1940s. During this time, the British  
 Edmund Burke-“Law of our creators”; most conservatives support tradition without religious justifications- the sense
government practised a form of Keynesian social democracy and managed the economy with the aim of increased Neo-Conservatism: (Social)
of belonging and identity and the test of time argument. Burke also saw the French Revolution as a crime, in
employment and increased welfare provision. Form of social conservatism, with an emphasis on order, discipline, authority and the promotion of nationalism. Advocates government intervention to achieve
abandoning all existing order, which had withstood the test of time. This sense of identity can be demonstrated
 Macmillan (PM 57-63) believed in planned capitalism, which consisted of a ‘mixed system, which contributes to the state this.
through the conservative support for the monarchy in the UK.
 ownership, regulation and control of certain aspects of economic activity, with the drive and initiative of private  
Support maintaining institutions of society to keep things the way they are.
 enterprise. Conservative New Right: (Neo-conservatism)
Chesterton called tradition “the democracy of the dead”, because it allows the wisdom of previous generations in a
 Despite these ideas about increased social welfare, ‘One Nation’ is still linked closer to capitalism than it is socialism, due  Permissiveness is when people make their own moral choices without a central moral authority and the CNR dislike it because it is a threat to social
contemporary society.
to the fact that it can provide benefits for the privileged and does not ensure complete equality. There are also themes of stability.
tradition.  Neo-liberals focus on the economy being left alone, with low state intervention. Neo-conservatives view the state as important as it strengthens
 Human imperfection:
   leadership, authority and joint moral thinking.
They have a negative view of human nature. They believe that humans need stability and order. Humans are creatures
 Christian Democracy:  Paternalistic views on society- they wish to strengthen society by providing guidance, support and a reduction of poverty. The creation of authority,
of habit, who are fond of familiarity and safety. They also argue that humans are psychologically, morally and
 They show a commitment to political democracy and catholic social traditions. These include a focus on social groups and social discipline and uniformity is desired.
intellectually (Michael Oakeshott-“boundless, bottomless world”) limited.
 harmony over competition.  Neo-liberal economics and neo-conservatism link through the ideas of greater discipline occurring, which justifies minimising the role of the state.
Humans are driven by basic appetites, including the desire for physical prosperity, for property, for power and to avoid
KEY ASPECTS OF CHRISTIAN DEMOCRACY:  Neo-conservatives believe that anti-social behaviour has been created by liberal individualism and the lack of authority in society, rather than due
deprivation.
 Democratic corporatism is when there is a social partnership, which highlights the importance of churches, businesses to social issues.
 Differs from liberal view, who possess a positive view of human nature.
 and union in policy making; government consults these establishments.  
This leads conservatives to take away peoples’ freedoms, for example, through harsh controls and punishments. As
 Subsidiarity is the idea that decisions should be made by the lowest appropriate institution. Christian democrats favour Thatcherism:
well as this, the importance of the state is emphasised by this belief.
this, thus implying that they favour forms of federalism, or support European integration. This implies that institutions A collection of ideas, used to govern Britain from ’79-’90.
 
such as local governments are important. 1. Belief in decreased state intervention as a tool to let the free market make the economy more efficient.
 Organic society:
 Keynesianism is a theory of economic s which refers to the use of government to regulate economics, through controlling 2. Monetarism: The idea that the state must tightly control the money supply to prevent rapid inflation.
 Society is a natural thing that humans are part of and cannot be separated from; people are connected to each other
aggregate demand, which encourages more jobs. As government spending increases, spending of the public increases. List 3. Privatisation of state owned industries: the belief that if a profit must be made, a company will be more efficient.
through their humanity and common membership of community.
 stresses the importance of politics and political power in economics, for example, protecting new companies. 4. Lower direct taxation: People should pay for what they use, not by how much they earn (anti-redistribution).
Conservatives think that a person is free when they willingly accept the rights and responsibilities that a society places
 A social market is an economy that is structured by market principles, but it operates in a context of a society where social Friedman once described Thatcher as a ‘19 th Century (classical) Liberal’.
on them. They argue that a person cannot be left alone; negative freedom does not exist.
 cohesion is maintained. The aim of the market should be to achieve broader social goals such as welfare systems and
Liberals see society as atomistic. However, conservatives see it as organic and naturally occurring.
 public services. NEW RIGHT PARADOX – Limited but strong government (economically liberal but socially authoritarian). Thatcher: ‘What this country wants is less tax and more
Society cannot be changed artificially, as it occurs naturally.
  law and order’.
 Libertarian conservatism:
 Hierarchy and authority:
 KEY BELIEFS OF LIBERATARIAN CONSERVATIVES: REMEMBER – Not all types of conservatives are traditionalists (Lib new right).
Equality is unachievable because they believe inequality occurs within society. Burke argued that there was a ‘natural
 Economic liberty and the free market. This is good because it places faith in the free market. Burke argued that the free
aristocracy’, meaning that everyone in society has different or separate functions. Equality is also undesirable.
 market was fair and efficient as well as natural and necessary. He believed that life work the working classes would be far
Conservatives believe in paternalism, thus implying that individuals are naturally placed in positions of power.
 worse without the free market, due to the belief that humans naturally like capital (‘love of lucre’).
Authority is a good thing as, ‘human imperfection’ would imply that they need this guidance. Hierarchy supports their   Paternalistic Both Libertarian
 The state should maintain public order (or less liberty in social life). They have a pessimistic view of human nature. This Paternalistic vs Libertarian:
belief in organic society, in that it creates an order and stability, which the individualistic society lacks.
 implies that a state is required to maintain public order and to ensure that authority is respected. Role of the Looking after the worst off in society, Should keep order, prevent radical Minimal as possible.
Limits to authority; it should be exercised with the best interests of everyone. They argued that the elites have the
 Belief in the market as an instrument of social discipline. Market forces are able to regulate and control economics and state: managing the economy if necessary. change.
burden of looking after everyone in society (noblesse oblige).
social activity. For example, market forces may deter workers for pushing for higher wages, by threatening them with
unemployment. The market can work alongside the police and the courts. Welfarism Support for welfare through benefits, No cradle to grave welfare. Do not support, instead market forces
 Property:
 Libertarian conservatism and key themes: education, etc. determine payments.
Property is good, as it allows them to show they have worked for their money and assets. Property promotes hard
 Tradition: Keeping existing structure of society. Traditional belief in private property.
work and respect. They see property as an extension of a person’s personality. Society More emphasis on society, bond between Order and stability are important. More emphasis on the individual/egoism.
  Human imperfection: Need for a state, small where possible. Market keeps people in line. people is important.
Conservatives are likely to ‘thrift’. This cautiousness with money provides them with security in an uncertain world.
 Organic society: Belief in hierarchy, they argue that the free market is naturally occurring.
 Conservatives hate burglary as it is a crime against a person’s personality. It therefore damages the individual and
 Hierarchy and authority: Authority is necessary and the state should provide this.
society. This contributes to their strong emphasis on law and order. Role of the Emphasis on duties and responsibilities to Individuals need guidance morally, Emphasis on individual freedom.
  Property: Acquiring property is a key freedom. Humans naturally like property, so the free market means that property individual others. socially and psychologically.
PM Harold Macmillan objected to the government selling council houses to tenants during his administration. This is a
can be acquired.
clear example of how conservatives differ from ‘free-market liberals’, as they see property as a link between the past,
present and future generations, rather than a way of gaining wealth. Economics ‘Middle way’ between free market and state Capitalism and free market where ‘Laissez faire’- no state intervention.
  controlled; Keynesianism. possible.
Neo-Lib Neo-Con
Trigger notes version Modern examples
Mechanistic theory Organic theory • David Cameron – One nation conservative, shown by his own admission and commitment to BIG SOCIETY.
Rationalist Mistrust of human nature • Origins & developments • May a One Nation conservative?
• Reaction • For:
Negative economic Illiberal • ‘vowed to govern in the interests not of the ‘privileged few’ but of all those who are ‘just
freedom • Europe
• UK about managing’.
Equality of Opportunity Anti-egalitarian • • As Home Sec, tackled impunity of the police on behalf of BME communities.
USA
Limited state Strong state • Asia • Telegraph, in January 2017, that those ‘just getting by don’t need a government that will get
• Core values out of the way’ but rather an ‘active government’, willing to ‘step up’ and ‘fix broken markets’.
• Tradition • Phillip Hammond, in his autumn budget statement, said the government was ditching
• Human imperfection Cameron’s commitment to eliminate the budget deficit by 2020, and announced a raft of new
• Organis society public spending measures in the form of a new £23 billion Productivity Investment Fund.
Key Thinkers • Heirarchy and authority • Against:
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) – Used social contract • Property • Is still continuing with austerity.
theory to defend absolute government as this would • Traditional • Refused to help migrats in the med as Home Sec.
avoid chaos. Citizens have an obligation to their state. • Authoritarian
• Edmund Burke (1729-97) - Thought French Rev was • Paternalistic • THE ALT-RIGHT –
based on abstract principles. Wisdom is from • One nation • Milo Yiannopoulos, who has written for Breitbart News. He was banned from Twitter due to his
experience, willing to change in order to conserve. • Christian connections to and encouragement of the online racist abuse of US comedian Leslie Jones. Handsome
• Frederrich von Hayek (1899-1992) – Believed in • Liberalism and witty, he has gained huge publicity with his outrageous comments. Yiannopoulos argues that
traditionalism but also individualism and market • New Right although the alt-right is Islamophobic, it is not racist, despite the views of some followers.
freedom. • Neo liberal • Ethno-nationalism — the idea that nations should be ethnically homogeneous. This leads to a firm
• Michael Okeshott (1901-90) – advocated non • Neo Conservative rejection of multiculturalism and immigration.
ideological approach to politics. Favoured traditional • Thinkers • Paleo conservatism — a US-based ideology that supports a return to old-fashioned religious and rural
values and established customs. • Hobbes ways of life, highlighting traditional family values and a limited role for the state. As it is an American
• Irving Kristol (1920-2009) – Exponent of US neo- • Burke movement, this is predictably connected to gun ownership.
conservatism. Hated socialism, welfarism and counter • Hayek • Racism and white supremacy — some alt-right supporters have revived the entirely discredited idea of
culture. • Okeshott racial hierarchy, claiming a link between race and IQ, for example.
• Rober Nozick (1938-2002) – defended property • Kristol • Free market capitalism/anarcho-capitalism — in rejecting mainstream politics, some alt-right
rights, wanted minimal taxation, minimal • Nozick supporters believe the state should be abolished and that the free market would provide more efficient
government. and cheap services.
• Reactionary politics — alt-right supporters are backwards looking, harking back to an imagined past
where there was no mixing of races, where women’s roles were restricted and it was acceptable to
discriminate against people due to their skin colour, religion, sexuality, disability or gender. They oppose
what they describe as ‘political correctness’ but what liberals would see as equal treatment and
opposition to bullying and discrimination.
• Negative view of human nature — like many conservatives, the alt-right sees human nature as fragile
and vulnerable, seeking security through patriotism, for example.
• Libertarianism — the belief (popular in America) that the state should be minimal and the sovereign
individual should be autonomous and free.
Socialism -
collectively.
Socialism is a desire for greater equality in society based on the optimistic view that humans have the capacity for good when acting

Development of socialism: Categories Evolutionary Socialism:

 Socialism developed as a response to industrial capitalism, based on the idea that people were exploited • You can divide socialism into different categories in two separate ways.  The working classes lost their revolutionary character as industrialisation progressed and living standards rose.
and oppressed during the 18 th and 19th centuries. 1. END GOALS - Fundamentalist (abolish capitalism) vs Revisionist (tame capitalism).  Gradualism was adopted in the place of revolution to bring about socialist change. They aimed to utilise the neutral state, using socialist parties in a democratic system. Eg: UK
 Originally socialism believed in revolution, to overthrow capitalism. At the time, this was the only viable 2. MEANS OF ACHIEVEING SOCIALISM – Revolutionary (uprising) vs Evolutionary (by election). Labour Party in 1900.
option to encourage social change, due to there being no mass democracy for the working classes. • Types of socialism can overlap in these categories. JUST USE EVOLUTIONARY AND REVOLUTIONARY UNLESS YOU  Fabian Society took up the cause of parliamentary socialism. Webb argued that socialism would develop out of liberal capitalism.
 By the late 19th century, political reform led to working class democracy. This gave socialists an alternative TREULY UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENCE.  Bernstein argued that the Marxist call for revolution was made redundant.
to revolution, leading to the development of democratic socialism.  
 Socialism is unified by its core principles; however, it is divided between revolutionary and democratic The inevitability of gradualism:
socialist traditions.  The Fabian Society believed that socialism would inevitably develop through gradualism, due to their understanding of democratic politics and industrial working-class
How was different socialists tried to achieve a socialist society? populations.
  1. In the late 19 th century, many countries introduced democratic reforms, leading to the universal franchise. The UK achieved universal suffrage in 1926. This meant that socialists
Revolutionary Socialism: could follow a democratic strategy.
Key themes of socialism:
 Revolutionary socialism originated in the 19 th century and was advocated by Auguste Klanqui. Socialism was 2. Working class people were expected to naturally support and vote for socialism. It was thought that because the working classes made up a majority of the population,
Community:
necessary at the time because working class people were largely excluded from democracy. socialist parties would have majority wins in elections. This was seen in socialist victories in Britain, Germany and France after WW2.
 Community is the belief that people work together for shared goals, based on common wants and needs,
 Marx and Engles believed in a Proletariat Revolution, provoked by the poverty in industrial countries. 3. As socialists would win elections, socialist policies would be implemented, therefore creating a socialist society. Eg: Creation of the National Health Service in 1948.
which is otherwise called ‘shared fraternity’.
 Lenin and the Bolsheviks led the first socialist revolution in 1917. This set the templates for late socialists such 4. As socialist parties succeeded, other parties would be forced to adopt socialist policies to win a bigger share of the electoral vote. Eg: 1940s-‘50s UK Conservative Party.
 John Donne: “No man is an island”. This implies an approach which promotes working collectively and the
as Mao.
benefit of a whole group.
 Revolutionary socialist has largely struggled since the fall of the USSR, with the exception of China, Cuba and  Problems with the inevitability of gradualism include:
 Community is vital to socialists as they believe that all human skills and attributes are learnt from society.
North Korea. However, these states show characteristics including military hierarchical government and  Despite successes of some European socialist parties, gradualism has failed to occur. Eg: Early successes include the Swedish Democratic Labour Party, who have remained in
Humans are neither self-sufficient nor self-contained individuals can only be understood by themselves
suppression of dissent. power since 1951.
and society through the social groups to which they belong.
 Socialists argue that human nature is flexible, being shaped by socio-economic influences. People’s  The changing nature of the working classes led to the rise of disassociation with working class values. More recently, the working classes have perceived themselves as
Utopian socialism middle class, due to a change in working class jobs and improving living standards.
characters are constantly shaped by experience, being either positive or negative influences.
•  Utopian socialism often predates Marxism.  Galbraith: As people’s quality of life has improved, the working class has been led to believe that socialism would disadvantage them: “Contented majority”.
• It still wants the abolition of capitalism and to set up an egalitarian society.  The success of Keynesianism has undermined socialist economics, leading many socialists to believe that capitalism could be successful if harnessed.
Cooperation:
• Thomas Moore (1516) – envisaged a perfect society to highlight the issues with the current society.
 People have naturally supportive relationships that can be damaged if people compete against one
• Utopia implies human nature is perfectible and thinks it is attainable – positive view. Social Democracy:
another. Competition creates human negativity, whereas cooperation creates affection and respect.
• Can be seen as an over optimistic fantasy, not attainable – Negative view.  This aspect of socialism rejects revolution in favour of democratic politics as a means of achieving socialist goals.
 Peter Kropopin said that the human race thrives due to ‘Mutual Aid’.
• There is no common perception of utopia.  It does not wish to abolish capitalism, but rather harness it to create wealth and achieve socialist justice.
 Socialists argue that cooperation rewards people for hard work on a higher moral level than material
• Has a moralistic (NOT MATERIAL) criticism of capitalism. Ethical socialism:
rewards. This is why socialists oppose capitalism because it breeds competition and materialism.
• Robert Owen’s commune as an example.  Social democracy does not adopt the historical or scientific methods of Marx. It justifies its desire for social democracy on the basis of moral and ethical viewpoints.
 Socialists believe people should be motivated by the common good and this will lead to them having better
lives.  Compassion and mutual support are natural human qualities and therefore the right thing to do. These ideas have developed from humanist principles, with thinkers such as
Marxism: Owen and Morris.
 Marx had criticised early socialism for being utopian and unscientific. He attempted to explain human history  Social democracy also developed out of religious traditions based on Christian socialism. This has the central teaching of having compassion for others. Tawney, The Acquisitive
Equality:
in terms of historical analysis. Society, which criticises greed.
 Social and equality or equality of outcome form a cornerstone of the socialist ideology.
 He used Hegel’s theory of the dialectic to explain historical and social development through time. Marx claims  Social democrats focus on the idea of greater equality amongst people, rather than total equality. This would be achieved through a mix of state intervention, policies such as
 It stresses that justice and fairness are reduced by competition (in the form of capitalism).
that human history is the history of ‘Dialectical Materialism’; this has been present in every stage of human collective ownership, but also based upon market principles.
 This belief, however, does not imply that everyone is equal in their ability, but that each person has some
development. Revisionist socialism:
kind of importance within society and therefore deserve to be rewarded equally.
Reasons behind dialectical materialism:  Marxism was re-examined and the rejection of capitalism was reviewed. They argued that capitalism could be reformed in the interest of social justice.
 Equality provides the basis for the socialist ideas of community and cooperation.
 Alienation: Disconnection with the process of work.  They rejected historic materialism, for example within Bernstein’s ‘Evolutionary Socialism’.
 If everyone is equal, they will not view other people as competition, meaning that they are more able to
-Peoples labour would be used solely for profit.  Social democrats argued that capitalism had evolved and was no longer just an agent of class capitalism. Today capitalist societies are far more diverse, with a greater
identify with others; a sense of solidarity develops. This maintains social order.
-Supervision of management would create a climate of fear; the working classes would distribution of wealth.
 
be blackmailed into labour.  The state and democracy were no longer seen to be ‘agents of capitalism’.
 
-Competitive workplace, making the workplace and the people in it selfish and negative.  
Class politics:
 Surplus value: Owners of the means of production have to pay their workers less than the value of their labour Neo-revisionism (Third-way):
 Socialists view class politics in two ways:
to profit.  As socialist parties around the world have gone through a period of revision, they have been distanced from traditional social democracy.
1. A tool to identify changes throughout history. Social classes are principle actors in historical and political
-This is ultimately the exploitation of labourers.  This new ideological stance has been described as the ‘third way’ or ‘new’ social democracy. It presents an alternative to social democracy and neoliberalism.
change. This is demonstrated through how Marxists believe that historical change is a result of class
-Workers would not be content with this inequality, leading to revolution.  There are certain characteristics common to each interpretation of the ‘third way’:
conflict.
 The concentration of wealth: Capitalism means the continued concentration of wealth, meaning that 1. ‘Socialism is dead’, with there being little alternative to what 1995 New Labour called ‘a dynamic market economy’. Capitalism has mutated into a ‘knowledge economy’. The
2. The working classes specifically are seen as a means of achieving a socialist society, through the
eventually demand will fall. third way attempts to build on the neoliberal revolution of the 70s and 80s.
development of a proletariat state, emancipating the working class.
-The rich are able to make money easier than those who are less well off. 2. An emphasis on community and moral responsibility. Whilst the third way accepts the economic theories of neoliberalism, it rejects its moral basis. Eg: ‘Blair project’
 Social class has not been accepted as a necessary feature of society. Socialists have the aim of reducing
-If wealth concentrates, it is withdrawn from the everyday economy, meaning capitalism attempted to fuse communitarian ideas with liberal ones, resembling modern liberalism. Rights and responsibilities are bound together.
class inequalities.
begins to struggle and will eventually fall. 3. There is a consensus view of society rather than a socialist conflict view. Class conflicts are often concealed or ignored, alongside the rejection of the ‘either/or’ approach of
 Marxists argue that class is linked to economic power, defined by the individual’s relation to production.
 Each stage in human history has contained oppositional forces, with each civilisation ending in revolutionary conventional moral thinking.
People form either a part of the bourgeoisie or the proletariat. This model is characterised by class
change, caused by dialectical materialism. The final stage of human development was argued to be capitalism, 4. Social inclusion is promoted over the socialist stress for equality. Opportunity and meritocracy have been favoured. The third way have rejected neoliberal and socialist
warfare.
which “contained the seeds of its own destruction”. approaches to the welfare state, focussing welfare on the socially excluded. This follows the US idea that welfare should be conditional on the individual’s willingness to
 Social democrats define social class in terms of income and status differences between white-collar and
 Marx argued that once the proletariat became aware of their oppression (class consciousness), they would become self-reliant.
blue-collar workers. The advance of socialism, in their view, is associated with narrowing the divisions
revolt and overthrow capitalism, resulting in a proletariat state, which would ‘wither away’, leading to a 5. The idea of a market state is encouraged, with a focus being placed on social investment, strengthening the skills and the power of the workforce. Education has a priority over
between these classes through state intervention.
fully communist society. Marx called this “the end of pre-history”. “The state is an agent of capitalism.” social security, as it encourages personal development as well as promoting employability. The state is seen as a cultural actor, required to shape the attitudes of the
Common Ownership: population, rather than carry out social engineering.
 Socialists have traced the origins of competition and inequality to private property, by which they usually
Utopian Socialism Scientific Socialism (Marxism)
mean capital or wealth. They argue that property is unjust; wealth is produced by a collective human
effort. Property is also morally corrupting, encouraging people to be materialistic. Property also fosters
conflict in society, for example between the owners and the workers.
Schools of thought in the British Labour Party
Emotive and moralistic Objective and empirical
 Fundamental socialists such as Marx and Engels believed in the abolition of private property and the
Democratic Social New

1900-1950s

1990s onwards
1950s-1990s
creation of a classless society. However, little was suggested on how to achieve this. The Bolshevik
revolution of 1917 took the approach of nationalisation, leading to common ownership, which resulted in Capitalism is evil Capitalism is a necessary economic stage


state ownership.
Social democrats view the state as a way of collectively owning wealth and rationally planning the
economy. In the west, nationalisation has been applied selectively, with the object of forming a mixed
Socialism Democracy Labour/Thi
rdway
Focus on ends Focus on means

(Radical)
economy. The Atlee government nationalised major industries such as coal and steel. Despite this, since
the 1950s, parliamentary socialist parties have focussed on equality and social justice rather than
collective ownership. Wishful thinking Deterministic and predictive
 How did 20th century communism differ from Marxist theory?
  Marx: Lenin: Stalin: Thinkers
Reason for revolution: Argued that revolution would occur in Russia 1917: Very rural, mainly Stalin sought to embrace the doctrine •
a more mature capitalist country (ie agricultural way of life. There was a of ‘socialism in one country’; there was Robert Owen (1771-1858) – Human nature could be changed by the
UK), where forced of production had belief that there was a need for a new more of a focus in developing Russia environment. Wanted to replace capitalism with common ownership.
expanded to their limit. kind of political party. into a communist society. •
Class consciousness? Proletariat would achieve class The working class was deluded by The proletariat would not need to Karl Marx (1818-83) – Father of communism. Advanced scientific and
consciousness and overthrow the bourgeois ideas, a ‘vanguard party’ achieve consciousness, the state would materialistic critique of capitalism. Thought the abolition of capitalism was
bourgeoisie state, initially replacing it would encourage the working classes be in control of everything.
with a proletariat state. to develop a revolutionary class
inevitable because of its own exploitive nature.
consciousness. • Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932) – Thought that socialism could be a peaceful
Style of revolution/ who In an advanced capitalist society, all Vanguard party would seize power in State socialism, abolish all private transition.
was involved? proletariat would spontaneously seize the name of the proletariat, in the form enterprise, entailing the mass
power. of a coup. collectivisation of all services and • Vladmir Lenin (1870-1924) – advocated the need of a vanguard party to lead the
industries. proletariat.
Type of revolutionary Whole proletariat Democratic centralism State socialism
state: • Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) – put forward the idea that the bourgeois stage could
Results? Communist Withering away of the state. Ruling party acting in the best interests Complete state control. be skipped in Russia. Anti-Stalin.
classlessness? of everyone.
• Richard Tawney (1880-1962) – Advocated a moral approach to socialism, saying
that we are morally equal and lack a moral ideal. We need to work together, not
related to class war.
Extra points • Gramsci – Not scientific, need a political and educative advancement.
• When Socialism became democratic it was still radical and arguably fundamentalist (Democratic Socialism).
• This was revised after WW2 because:
•
•
Cold War – hostility to socialism
Rise of the middle class, weakening of traditional working class.
Modern examples
• Influence of capitalist mass media. • 2017 election – Labour’s for the many not the few
• Nationalisation not popular policies. manifesto suggested the nationalisation of some
• Economic boom after the war. key industries like electricity, water and rail. This
• This gave rise to Social democracy no longer fundamental and favoured a mixed economy & equality of outcome.
• This was later revised again because:
suggests a renewed commitment to COMMON
• Shrinkage of working class. OWNERSHIP.
• Collapse of communism. • May point to Corbyn being a Democratic
• Election defeats. socialist rather than any other form,
• Globalisation – entrenched capitalism.
• Irreversible impact of New Right
especially as he seems Eurosceptic (in
• This resulted in the third way/new labour. private).
• Tension is shown in between the strands in the
Democratic socialism (1900- Social Democracy (1950s- modern Labour party – Blairites (thir

new Labour
Democratic
Common ownership

Democracy
1950s) 1990s) way/moderate) vs momentum (radical).

Thirdway/
Socialism
Marxism
Origins and developments

Utopian

Social
Radical Reformist

Revolutionary
Class politics • The influence of Marx has further waned as Cuba

Evolutionary
Cooperation
Community

has modernised and become more capitalist, China

Capitalism

More left wing More right wing

Response

Equality
Rev->Ev

is now arguably more capitalist than ever.

Trigger notes version

Mainly collective economy Mainly private economy

•
•

•
Core Values

More principled More pragmatic

Thinkers
Types

Equality Freedom and fairness

•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•

•
Extensive welfare state Extended welfare state
•

•
Anarchism
Collectivist anarchism: Similarities between individualist and collectivist
 Derives from ‘Anarkhos’, meaning ‘without rule’. Can be described as Anarcho-collectivism or social anarchism. anarchists:
 Often believed to lead to chaos and disorder, which anarchists reject. Mutualism:  Reject state authority
 Based around the belief in no state, with complete and utter freedom.  A system of fair exchange, where individuals or groups bargain with one another, trading goods and services without profiteering or exploitation.  Reject organised religion
 Argue that humans are naturally cooperative and rational.  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon’s libertarian socialism stands between the individualist and collectivist traditions of anarchism. He said that “Property is theft”, condemning a system  Ideas of freedom and voluntary
of economic exploitation. Unlike Marx, he was not opposed to all property. He admired the independence and initiative of small communities of craftsmen and artisans. activities
 It would exist through a voluntary, mutually beneficial and harmonious system, which would require no regulation or interference from the state. Affairs would be organised  Shared positive view of human nature
through mutual cooperation and a system of ownership that would avoid exploitation.  Belief in utopianism
History of Anarchism:  Examples include the establishment of mutual credit banks in France and Switzerland, which provided cheap loans for investors and charged a rate of interest only high  Representative democracy is a façade
 1840, Proudhon: In ‘What is Property?’, declared “I am an anarchist”. enough to run the bank.  Reject constitutionalism.
 1864: Proudhon and Marx’s followers joined forces to set up the International Workingmen’s Association, or the First International. Anarcho-syndicalism:
 1871: Movement collapsed because of the antagonism between Marxists and Anarchists.  A form of revolutionary trade unionism, drawing on socialist ideas and advancing a notion of class warfare. Workers are seen as the oppressed, and industrialists, politicians
 Syndicalism/anarcho-syndicalism (a form of revolutionary trade unionism, based on class war) promoted anarchism as a genuine mass movement around Europe in the early and judges etc.. are the exploiters.
20th century.  In the short term, trade unions help to protect workers’ interests. In the longer term, they can be used for revolution.
 During the Spanish Civil War, the anarchist movement, CNT, saw a membership of 2m. However, after Franco won the civil war, this saw an end to the movement.  Sorel: revolution could occur through a general strike.
 1917 saw the Russian Revolution, which undermined anarchism.  Conventional politics is corrupting and pointless.
 A syndicate model could reflect the structure of a future society (grassroots, pure democracy, cooperation).
 However, they can be criticised for placing too much focus on spontaneous action.
Characteristics of Anarchism: Anarcho-communism:
 Never succeeded at winning power at a national level.  This a belief in social solidarity, alongside the belief in collectivism and full communism. It is argued that wealth that is produced through labour, should be owned by the
 No society has been remodelled according to anarchist principles. whole community. This links to anarchism because private property is particularly offensive to anarchists as it promotes conflict and social disharmony.
 Anarchists look to historical societies that reflect their principles, for example, the Cities of Ancient Greece, Russian peasant communities.  There is a highly optimistic belief in human nature, as expressed by Kropotkin. He attempted to provide a biological explanation for social solidarity, through re-examination of
 They support experiments in small-scale communal living in Western society. Darwin’s theory of evolution. He argued that mutual aid had flourished in Ancient Greece, but it had been hindered by competitive capitalism.
 The goal of anarchism is often dismissed as utopian.  Kropotkin and Malatesta argued that true communism required the abolition of the state, showing their admiration of Medieval city states and peasant communes.
 Their opposition to bureaucratic organisations means that they refuse to stand for election, which hinders their ability to gain any political power.  Kropotkin further suggested that an anarchist society would be made up of a collection of small, self-sufficient communes. This would strengthen solidarity.
 However, anarchist thought does persist today.  Decisions would be made through direct democracy and people would manage their own affairs in small communities.
 Proudhon: “To be governed is to be watched…numbered…censured…by creatures who have neither the right nor the wisdom nor the virtue to do so.”

How do anarchists view…? Individual anarchism:

 Human Nature: Highly positive view of human nature. They are rational, sociable and have the ability for enlightenment.  Described as ‘liberalism taken to the extreme’, because it follows the idea of the sovereign individual. Godwin’s anarchism amounts to extreme classical liberalism, for
Bad human behaviour is a result of the imposition of authority, mainly from the state. example. Freedom is negative and resides in the absence of external constraints.
 The State: Very hostile towards the state; see actions of the state as non-consensual.  Their belief in individual sovereignty implies that the state is evil, as it poses as a sovereign, compulsory and coercive body. Individualism and the state are irreconcilable.
 Society: Positive view of society, natural and spontaneous harmony, with no need for the state, which is cohesive intervention.  Modern liberals believe in the idea of positive freedom, which is fulfilled by the state. However, anarchists argue that people are able to conduct themselves peacefully and
 The economy: Some anarchists advocate complete free-market economics, others would support pure communism, however all anarchists dislike state intervention. harmoniously.
 Freedom: They see it as an absolute value, with freedom being unable to achieve under the rule of any political authority.  Individualist anarchists reject constitutionalism and representative government. They regard them as facades, behind political oppression. They argue that all states infringe
 Authority: All forms of authority are unnecessary and disruptive, equating authority with oppression and exploitation. individual liberty.
 Equality: They stress the importance of political equality, understanding equality as an absolute right to personal autonomy. They argue that all forms of political inequality Egoism:
amount to oppression. Collective anarchists support social equality.  Can mean that individuals are self-seeking. However, this could create conflict, so a state should be necessary?
 Religion: It ca be an institutionalised source of oppression. The church and the state are linked; religion preaches obedience and submission, whilst prescribing a set of  Stirner: Egoism means that individuals should be “the centre of the moral universe”.
authoritative values.  Therefore, individuals should act as they choose, ignoring convention, moral principles and law.
 Democracy: They endorse direct democracy and call for continuous popular participation and decentralisation. Representative democracy justifies elite domination and  However, it is difficult to see how order could be maintained under these circumstances.
oppression. Liberatarianism:
 This is a belief that that individual should enjoy the widest possible realm of freedom, meaning the removal of both internal and external constraints on the individual.
 Thoreau: lived for some years in solitude in the woods, in order to investigate self-reliance.
Key themes of anarchism:  Thoreau approved of civil disobedience against the government. Individual conscience is more important.
Anti-statism: (Consitutionalism)  Tucker considered how individuals could live and work together without conflict:
 The state establishes sovereign power within a defined area, which usually possesses a monopoly of coercive power.  Placed an emphasis on human rationality and reasoned discussion.
 The state is evil and exploitative as it imposes authority over the individual, which can corrupt people. It also enslaves and oppresses human development.  System of market exchange, where individuals have a right to the property they produce, but they also need to work with others, so this encourages social and economic
 Anarchists believe that human nature is flexible, thus meaning that the state can mould people into selfish and corrupt individuals. stability.
If authority is imposed onto someone, the person is damaged through the inequality of knowledge and power, which in turn creates a sense of authority. Anarcho-capitalism:
 Political authority is exploitative and corrupting. This is because the state holds sovereign power, which can be used to oppress individuals. Goldman: The state was symbolised  Rand, Rothbord and Friedman pushed free market ideas to their limit.
by ‘the club, the gun, the handcuff or the prison.  It was argued that the government can be replaced by unregulated market competition.
 Issues with this belief:  Property is to be owned by individuals, who can enter into contracts with others if they choose to.
 State oppression stems from the corruption of individuals, by their own political and social circumstances, so how did political authority occur in the first place?  Market regulates all social interaction.
 If power and authority is corrupting, how should a society be organised?  The market can satisfy all human wants.
Utopianism: (concent)  Profit-making agencies will be better than those provided by the state, due to competition, leading to cheap and efficient services.
 Utopianism is the vision of a perfect society, often characterised by the abolition of want, the absence of conflict and the avoidance of oppression and violence.  Contracts are voluntary. For example, private prisons and private courts in the USA.
 Anarchists argue that humans only act in selfish, aggressive and unjust ways due to the corrupting influence of the state.  
 Rousseau: “Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains”, this supports the anarchist argument that government is the problem rather than the solution.
 Social institutions are argued to help mould the ideas of cooperation and respect into human nature, rather than the use of authority, which encourages negativity and
selfishness.
 Issues with this belief: Roads to anarchy:
 Critics have suggested that there is no prospect of a functioning society as there is always an aspect of selfish and negative human behaviour at the heart of human nature. Revolutionary violence:
Anti-clericalism:  Key methods include assassinations, such as the People’s Will in Russia, with the assassination of Alexander II, or in the modern day, bombing.
 Anarchists often reject organised religion because they see it as an ultimate form of authority over the individual and society, in the form of faith and God; a concept with  Violence is a form of retribution. It originates in oppression and exploitation, caused by the state and their agents. Violence can be a way of raising political awareness.
requires unquestioning loyalty.  Violence has been counterproductive. Political violence has sparked public outrage and horror. This led to the damaged reputation of anarchism and violence is an unpromising
 Religion has been described as a pillar of the state, as religion is used to support and legitimise authority and order, for example, the concept of divine right used by absolute way of persuading the ruling classes to step down.
monarchs.  Most anarchists reject violence.
 Religions impose a set of values and moral codes. These are policed by figures, who possess authority, such as priests or rabbis. Direct Action:
 However, some anarchists do not completely reject the idea of religion, through the support of spirituality or personal enlightenment. This includes Buddhism and Taoism,  Ranges from passive resistance to terrorism (main aim is to cause disruption).
which allow the individual to make their own choices.  Anarchists refuse to engage in conventional politics, and aim to use direct action on employers. Anti-globalisation and capitalism movements use mass protest and direct
Economic freedom: political engagement.
 The state and the economy are linked, because economic inequality benefits the state, as authority is created. Bakunin argued ‘political power and wealth are inseparable’.  Direct action is untainted by the state, meaning that their opinions do not have to be watered down.
 The difference between Marxist and anarchist views on the economy, is that anarchists saw the ‘ruling class’, more broadly, as anyone who commands power, wealth and  It is also a form of popular political participation, on the basis of decentralisation.
privilege.  However, public support can be damaged for political groups and movements, from the label gained of ‘irresponsibility’ or ‘extremism’. Media may also prevent groups from
 Three major groups were identified by Bakunin; gaining power, by labelling a particular group as ‘outsiders’, meaning that there may be little influence upon government.
1. Vastly exploited majority Pacifism / non-violent protest:
2. A minority who are both exploited and exploit others.  The use of moral principles (or religious) and returning to a simple, rural existence based on cooperation and mutual respect.
3. The supreme governing state that exploits and oppresses deliberately.  It reflects a respect for human beings as moral and autonomous creatures.
 There is a division of beliefs within anarchism: Non-violence has been attractive as a political strategy and demonstrates the strength and moral purity of ones’ convictions.
 Collective anarchists believe in destroying the state and collectivising property.  Those who support pacifism will often shy away from mass political activism. However, this failed to be genuinely effective.
 Individual anarchists believe that the market is the only way to run a society.
 All anarchists oppose the economic system which is the implementation of managed capitalism alongside social democracy in 1945. It is an example of state authority having
great control and power over peoples’ lives. It allowed corruption and class exploitation.
 Anarchists
-They dismiss parliamentary
socialism as a contradiction.
-Capitalism cannot be reformed or
normalised.
-Any expansion of the power of
parliament, plays a role in
entrenching oppression.
-Anarchists would not endorse any
kind of state, including a proletariat
state.
Marxism
Materialistic theory
Scientific socialism
State is a superstructure
Explains state
Endorses Proletarian state
State will wither away
Liberalism
State is a necessary evil
State aids positive freedom
Favours constitutionalism and
consent
Rule of law protects liberty
Reformist
Both
-Stress the importance of
cooperation and solidarity.
-Fundamentally reject capitalism, as
it is a system of class exploitation.
-Preference for the collective
ownership of wealth and communal
living.
-Human being have the capacity to
order their affairs without political
authority.
-A fully communist society would be
anarchic, as expressed by Marx:
“Withering away of the state”.
-Endorsed revolution as a means of
bringing about political change.
Anarchism
Political theory
Utopian socialism
State is primary target
Condemns state
Rejects any state
State will be overthrown
Anarchism
State is an unnecessary evil
State negates freedom
Both are a sham
All law infringes liberty
Revolutionary
Marxists
-Marxists have called for a
revolutionary ‘dictatorship’ of the
• Anarcho-Communism
• Anarcho-Syndicalism
proletariat.
• Anarcho-capitalism
-However, this state will eventually
‘wither away’.
• Franco –Spain
• Lenin - Russia
-Marxists view the state as a
• Economic Freedom
reflection of the class system.
• First International
• Egoism
• Origins & Developments
• Anti-clericalism
• Undermined
• Individualist
• Anti-statism
• Utopianism
• Collectivist
Trigger notes version
• Owen
• Split
• CNT
• Core Values
• Thinkers
• Types
Thinkers
• William Godwin (1756-1836) – Rejected authoritarianism. Very positive Modern examples
view of human nature and thought people could and would self govern. • Occupy movements 2012 show signs of having
• Josiah Warren (1798-1874) – Sovereignty of the individual, New harmony, adopted anarchist tactics.
Labour is the only real capital. • Influence of anarchist ideas – people are becoming
• Max Stirner (1806-56) – Humans are at the centre of their own moral increasingly critical of the establishment and authority.
universe. Egoism.
• Proudhon (1809-65) – Mutualism according to need rather than profit. • Espoused by some prominent modern academics –
Attacked traditional property rights. NOAM CHOMSKY.
• Mikhail Bakunin (1814-76) – Freedom could only be achieved by
collectivism. NO private property. ALL political power is oppressive.
Communes.
• Henry Thoreau (1817-62) – Experimented with simple living and self
reliance. Advocated civil disobedience to unjust laws.
• Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921) – ‘mutal aid’, scientific and wanted to
decentralise and restructure society.
• Murray Rothbard (1926-95) – The state is the enemy of economic
freedom. Ownership is a right and an ethic to aspire to.
UNIT 3 IDEOLOGIES – GRIDS
  Liberalism Conservatism Socialism Anarchism
Core Values • Reason • Organic society • Common ownership • Anti-statism
• Freedom • Hierarchy & authority • Community • Economic freedom
• Tolerance • Property • Class politics • Anti-clericalism
• Individualism • Tradition • Cooperation • Utopianism
• Justice • Human imperfection • Equality

Human nature • Rational, self interested and self reliant. We all have innate • Imperfect morally, psychologically and intellectually. • We are social creatures shaped by nurture rather than nature. • Highly optimistic
qualities as individual. • NR embrace rationality. • We are cooperative and rational. • Either sociable, gregarious and cooperative, able to maintain
• No real attention paid to conditioning. order
• OR extremely rational and self interested.

The state • Neutral arbiter to settle disputes. • Preference for strong state to provide authority. • Mixed • STATE IS EVIL
• CL – Nightwatchman state • Traditionals like balance between state and civil society. • Marx – state an instrument to oppress the working classes. • Unnecessary – human nature
• ML – Enabling state • Neo libs like state rolled back. • Others – embodiment of the common good. • Undesirable – Coercive, sovereign, exploitative, compulsory,
destructive.

Society • Not an entity but a collection of individuals. • An organism that is prior to the individual. • Seen society as unequal class power, deepest social bond. • Harmony is natural based on our social qualities.
• Contractual and voluntary • Held together by authority, tradition, common morality. • Marxists say only stable society is a classless one • Conflict and division is unnatural and product of authority and
• Balance of interests promotes harmony • NR liberal atomism. inequality.

Authority • From below, based on consent. • Authority is beneficial • Suspicious of authority as its used by the powerful. • All authority is destructive and corrupting.
• Authority should be rational, purposeful and limited. • Its needed, from above as ruling classes have the most • Endorses the authority of the collective body to keep individual
experience. greed in check.

Democracy • Seen as consent, can constrain abuses of power. BUT MUST BE • Endorse liberal democratic rule but with protections for • Traditionally for radical democracy to get common ownership. • Electoral democracy is a ruse.
DONE IN A CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK. institutions and property from the will of the many. Dismissed liberal democracy. • Endorse direct democracy & decentralisation.
• NR see it as over government. • Social democrats now committed to Liberal democracy.

Freedom • Think it’s the primary individualist value. CL – Negative, ML - • Traditionally endorsed weak freedom as reconition of rights and • Traditionally understood this as positive freedom, for self- • An absolute value, not compatible with authority.
Positive responsibilities, Negative freedom endangers fabric of society. fulfilment.
• Not being left alone but achieving self autonomy.
• New right do endorse Negative freedom. • Social democrats see it more like ML.

Economy • Vital part of civil society preference for market based • Favoured limited state interference as fear instability if not. • Marx – Collective ownership and absolute social equality. • REJECT any form of economic control or management.
economy. PRAGMATIC. • SD – Regulated capitalism, market good servant but bad master. • A-Comm – collective ownership and self-management.
• ML – accept limited economic management. • NR – Favoure unregulated capitalism • A-Caps – complete unregulated.

Equality • People are born equal, implies formal and foundational • Society naturally hierarchical. • Fundamental value • Absolute political equality, personal autonomy.
equality. • NR – embraced equality of opportunity somewhat. • For justice an social cohesion. • A-Comm – social equality via collective ownership.
• ML – equality of opportunity. • Equality of outcome
• CL meritocracy. • SD - Opportunity

Religion
Gender • Rarely seen as significant, all people are considered as • Divisions are natural and a product of time. Gives society is • Rarely seen as significant.
individuals. organic and hierarchical character.
Nature
Nation • Subscribe to the civic view of the nation. They are moral • Organic entity bound together by shared culture and identity. • A fictional group devised to divide people. Loyalties should be • A myth in order to promote obedience.
entities that are endowed with rights. Equal right to self Source of cohesion so regarded as one of the most significant international. • Association with the state.
determination. social groups.
 UNIT 3 IDEOLOGIES – GRIDS
Quotes
Ideology Individual Quote
Liberalism Lord Acton “Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts
absolutely”
Benjamin Disraeli Liberalism is the “politics of philosophical ideas instead
of political principles”
Thomas Jefferson “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men
are created equal”
Thomas Paine “Government, even in its best state, is but a necessary
evil; in its worst state, an intolerable one”

John Stuart Mill “By liberty, we mean protection against the tyranny of
the political rulers” – On Liberty (1859)
“Over himself, over his own body and mind, the
individual is sovereign” – On Liberty (1859)
“We should be free as long as our actions do no harm to
others”
Voltaire “I detest what you say, but I shall defend to the death
your right to say it”
George W. Bush “Liberty is the plan of heaven for humanity”
Conservatism Edmund Burke “Good order is the foundation of all good things”
“No generation should ever be so rash as to consider
itself superior to its predecessors”
“A partnership between those who are living, those are
dead and those who are to be born”
George Santayana “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned
to repeat it”
Hobbes “nasty, brutish and short”
G.K. Chesterton “democracy of the dead”
Margaret Thatcher “There is no such thing as society”
David Cameron “I’m not here to defend privilege; I’m here to spread it”

“I’m a liberal conservative”

Arthur Balfour “Gladstone was a Tory in everything but essentials”

Socialism Karl Marx “Men make their own history, but they do not make it as
they please; they do not make it under self-selected
circumstances existing already, given and transmitted
from the past.”

Winston Churchill “Socialism is the philosophy of failure, the creed of

ignorance and the gospel of envy”
Margaret Thatcher “To cure the British disease with socialism was like
trying to cure leukaemia with leeches”
Keith Joseph “The pursuit of income equality will turn this country
into a totalitarian slum”
Anarchism Rousseau “Man was born free, yet everywhere he is in chains”

Bakunin “The abolition of the Church and the State must be the
first and indispensable condition of the true liberation of
society”
“Social solidarity is the first human law; freedom is the
second law” (1873)
Anarchy (1906) “The police agent, the tax collector, the soldier and the
gaoler”
Proudhon “All property is theft”
Nationalism
Nationalism and Politics

 Nationalism has been both liberating and oppressive

Definition: belief that the nation is the central principle of political organisation. 
 Both progressive and regressive
Has entrenched established identities
 Celebrated national glories
 Both rational and irrational
Origins and Development: Core Themes: Self-Determ ination
 Appeals to principled beliefs
 Bred from non-rational drives and emotions, including ancient fears and hatreds
 Born during the French Revolution: people rose up in the name of the people to create a ‘French nation’  Stress of popular sovereignty, expressing idea of general will  Ideological shapelessness is a product of numerous factors
 Revolutionary and democratic creed – highlighting ‘subjects of the crown’ should be become ‘citizens of France’  Sovereign power rests with the nation  Emerged in very different historical contexts
 Invasions in Europe promoted a national identity and unity  The nation is a natural political community  Shaped by contrasting cultural inheritances
 Enthusiasm for the movement was originally just in the middle classes who wanted national unity and a constitutional government  Nationhood and statehood are intrinsically linked  Used to advance a wide variety of political causes and aspirations
 By the end of the 19th century nationalism was incredibly popular, beginning to encompass all aspects of the political spectrum: no longer just liberal  National identity is based upon the desire for the people to attain or  Reflects capacity of nationalism to fuse with and absorb other political doctrines and ideas
 Came to stand for social cohesion, order and stability in the growing challenge of socialism maintain political independence which is expressed through national self  Created a series of rival nationalist traditions:
 Sought to integrate the increasingly powerful working class into the nation to preserve the traditional social structure in society determination  Liberal nationalism
 Patriotic fever was celebrated by the commemoration of past national glories and military victories  Unification: process in which a collection of separate political entities  Conservative nationalism
 However, this created chauvinism and xenophobia, with each nation claiming superiority and regarding other nations as enemies and alien – intensified colonial expansion sharing cultural characteristics are integrated into a single state  Expansionist nationalism
 Contributed to a mood of international rivalry and suspicion which led to WW1  Nation states can be created by independence from foreign rule, e.g.  Anti-Colonial/Post colonial Nationalism
 Woodrow Wilson at the Paris Peace Conference, advocated the principle of national self determination – consolidating the completion of national building Poland became an independent republic in 1918 and again in 1945
 National uprisings took place in colonial countries wanting ‘national liberation’  The nation state is the highest most desirable form of political
organization Liberal N ationalism:
 It offers both cultural cohesion and political unity: when people with
Core Themes: The Nation
common values can self-govern then nationality and citizenship coincide
 Nationalism also acts to legitimise the authority of government as they  Oldest form of nationalism dating back to the French revolution
 Nation should be the central principle of political organisation must act in the ‘national interest’  Influenced Simon Bolivar who led the Latin American independence movement
 Nations are cultural entities: collections of people bound together by shared values and traditions with a common language, religion and history, often in the same  Nationalists believe that forces have created a world of independent  Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points were based on liberal nationalist principles
geographical area nation states  Shaped by J.J Rousseau’s defence of popular sovereignty – ‘general will’
 Language is one of the key symbols of nationhood: embodies distinctive values and forms familiarity and belonging in a nation  The nation state is seen by nationalists as the only viable political unit  Founded on defence of individual freedom
 However different nations share the same language, e.g. USA and England but these people do not see themselves as members of the same  Nationalism does not always go as far as separatism and can just be  Nationalists see nations as sovereign entities entitled to rights – right to self determination
nation federalism or devolution  Liberal nationalism is a liberating force
 Some nations share a national identity with the lack of a national language, e.g. Switzerland where French, German and Italian are spoken    It opposes all forms of foreign domination and oppression
 Religion is another key component: expresses common moral values and beliefs Core Themes: Culturalism  Stands for the ideal of self-government – constitutionalism & representation
 Northern Ireland: people who the same language are divided by religion  Believe that all nations are equal
 Divisions in nations do not always result in rival nationalisms, e.g. UK  Ultimate aim is the construction of a world of independent nation states
 Some forms are related to ethno-cultural aspirations and demands  J.S Mill: ‘the boundaries of government should coincide in the main with those of nationality’
 Countries all with the same faith do not feel they are unified under one nation, e.g. Poland, Brazil and Italy are all primarily Catholic but are
 Cultural nationalism: emphasises the strengthening or defence of cultural  Believe principle of balance or natural harmony applies to the nations of the world
not one nation
identity   
 Can be based on ethnic or racial unity in some circumstances, e.g. Nazi regime
 Want to regenerate the nation as a distinctive civilization  Wilson believed WW1 was caused by an ‘old order’ dominated by militaristic and autocratic empires
 Nationalism is usually more culturally than biologically based
 Political nationalism is rational and principled, cultural nationalism is  Promotes unity within a nation and brotherhood amongst all nations on the basis of mutual respect for national rights and characteristics
 Nationalism of US blacks is not based on race but shared history and culture
‘mystical’ and based on romantic belief in the nation as a unique history  Looks at the idea of cosmopolitanism and internationalism
 Nations usually share a common history and traditions
and organic whole  Grounded in the fear of an international ‘state of nature’
 National identity is preserved by recalling past glories, national independence, birthdays of national leaders and common cultural beliefs
 Cultural nationalism is bottom-up : draws on popular rituals, traditions and  National self-determination is a mixed blessing: whilst is forbids foreign control it creates a world where nation states pursue their own interests
 Nationalist features can also be based on future expectations
legends rather than an elite of ‘higher’ culture even at the expense of others
 Varying combination of cultural factors rather than a precise formula
 Cultural nationalism can help modernization, gives people a means of  National interdependence: promoting mutual understanding and co-operation
 Nations can only be defined subjectively by members, not by set external factors
‘recreating’ a nation  Liberals traditionally support the idea of free trade: economic interdependence means costs of international conflict are so great that warfare
 It’s a psycho-political entity: group of people who regard themselves as a natural political community, distinguished by shared loyalty or affection in the form of patriotism
 Rousseau is seen as the father of political nationalism, John Herder is seen becomes unthinkable
 Objective difficulties such as small population or lack of economic resources are of little significance if people are insisting on ‘national rights’
as the architect of cultural nationalism  Proposed that national ambition should be checked by the construction of international organisations to bring order to an otherwise lawless
 All nationalists agree that nations are a blend of cultural and psycho-political factors
 Herder, Johann Fichte and Friedrich Jahn believed in the uniqueness and international scene, e.g. UN
 Nations are held together by primordial (ancient/deep-rooted) bonds
superiority of the German culture  Critics claim it is naive and romantic
 Civil Nationalism: importance of civil consciousness and patriotic loyalty
 Herder: each nation possesses a ‘Volksgeist’ (spirit of the people) which is  Progressive and liberating face of nationalism and is seen as rational and tolerant
 
revealed in songs, myths and legends – providing a nation with a source of  They ignore the darker side of nationalism – such as tribalism
Core Themes: Organic Society
creativity  See nationalism as a universal principle but have less understanding of the emotional power nationalism which can lead to jingoism
 The role of a nation is to develop an awareness and appreciation of  Misguided in its belief that the nation state is key to political international harmony
 Humankind is naturally divided into a collection of nations with distinctive identities national traditions and collective memories rather than have a political  A problem is that it implies all nations lived in convenient geographical locations
 National ties and loyalties are found in all communities aim of statehood  The ideal of a politically unified and culturally homogeneous nation states can only be achieved by deporting minority groups and imposing a ban
 Primoridalist approach: national identity is historically embedded – nations have a common cultural heritage and language which can predate statehood or independence  Endorsed by the black panthers and Nation of Islam with ‘Black on migration
 Anthony Smith (1989) highlights importance primordialism by stressing continuity between modern nations and pre-modern ethnic Nationalism’
communities  Cultural forms of nationalism are viewed as tolerant and consistent with
 Modern nations are essentially updated versions of immemorial ethnic communities progressive political goals – differing from ethic nationalism
 Modernist Approach: national identity is forged in response to changing situations and historical challenges  Ethnicity refers to loyalty towards a distinctive population, cultural group
 Ernest Gellner (1983) – nationalism is linked to modernisation, especially industrialisation – emerging industrial societies promoted social or territorial area
mobility, self-striving and competition  Ethnic groups suggest that they are united by blood – impossible to join
 National community is deep rooted and enduring ethnic groups
 Benedict Anderson (1983) emergence of capitalism and modern mass communications has formed nations in the form of ‘imagined  Ethnic nationalism is exclusive and linked to racialism
community’  Cultural and ethnic forms are viewed as related, called ‘ethnocultural
 Constructivist approach: national identity is an ideological construct serving the interests of large powerful groups nationalism’
 Eric Hobsbawm (1983): nations are based on ‘invented traditions’  Chauvinistic or hostile to other nations or minority fears, fuelled by pride
 Nationalism creates nations not the other way around – been a controlling device for ruling classes to reduce the risk of class rebellion by and fear
ensuring national loyalty is stronger than class solidarity  Cultural nationalism is associated with assimilation and cultural ‘purity’ –
  incompatible with multiculturalism
 Trigger notes version
Modern examples
Conser vative Nationalism: Anti-Colonial and Postcolonial Nationalism:

 In the early 19 century conservatives saw nationalism as a radical, dangerous force

th  Due to imperialism nationalism became a worldwide phenomenon
• Origins and developments
 Conservative statesmen (Disraeli, Bismarck and even Tsar Alexander III) became sympathetic to  Experience of colonial rule forged a nationhood and desire for national liberation amongst • French revolution • Alt-right again
the idea of nationalism – seeing it as a way of maintaining social order and defending tradition the people of Asia and Africa
 Tends to develop in established nation states rather than ones in the process of becoming  During 20 th century: the political geography of the world was transformed by anti- • Citizens • Front Nationale came second in the 2017 French
nation states colonialism • Stability & unity Pres election – shows its on the rise.
 Don’t care about self determination but more about social cohesion and public order brought  During the interwar period independence movements were threatening the empires of
• Chauvanism •
about by patriotism France and England – with the final collapse occurring after WW2
Fall of the BNP show that Ethnic nationalism has
 Society is organic: nations emerge naturally from the desire of humans  Mounting national pressure and declining domestic economic performance meant in most
• Jingoism
 Humans are thought to be limited and imperfect who seek meaning and security within a
national community 
cases colonial powers departed peacefully
In some cases, decolonisation was characterised by revolution and armed struggles • Woodrow Wilson
fallen out of favour in the UK
 Principle goal is to maintain national loyalty by encouraging patriotism – especially to combat  Anti-colonial movements often voiced the ideas of liberal nationalism
• Anti-Colonial • Though the Rise of Britain first shows the
the idea of class solidarity encouraged by socialists  For African and Asian nations, independence was closely related to their economic
 By incorporating the working class in the nation, nationalism has been seen as the antidote to underdevelopment and subordination to industrialised states • Core values opposite. Their anti-Islamic views show their view

social revolution
Charles De Gaulle (French President 1959-69) harnessed nationalism in France


Came to express the desire for national liberation in political and economic terms
Gandhi: political philosophy of fusing Indian nationhood with the ethics of non violent and • Nation that cultural unity is required for stability/view of
 Appealed to national pride by endorsing an independent
defence and foreign policy 
self sacrifice, rooted in Hinduism – home rule was spiritual as well as political
Franz Fanon: emphasised links between anti-colonialism and violence
• Self determination alien cultures as out of place or inferior.
 Appeals to the belief in tradition and history  Colonization was not just political but also a way new • Culturalism


Nationalism becomes a defence for traditional institutions and way of life
Nostalgic and backward looking: reflects on past national glories or triumph 
species of man are created
Only experience of violence is powerful enough to bring
• Organic community • 2016 EU referendum arguably shows national
 Often use rituals and commemorations to present past military victories as defining moments about psycho-political regeneration • Types consciousness/ people view the nation as a
 They use traditional institutions as symbols of national identity, e.g. monarchy  Attracted to socialism – more related to internationalism than nationalism alone
• Ethnocultural
 Particularly prominent when sense of national identity is threatened or in danger  Socialism embodies values such as community and co-operation which were already legitimate political unit of organisation.
 Immigration and supra-nationalism (like the EU) have kept this form of nationalism alive established in many traditional, preindustrial societies • Civic
 Conservatives believe that cultural diversity leads to instability and conflict  Socialism provided an explanation for inequality and exploitation, leading to a greater
 Stable and successful societies must be based on shared values and a common culture – understanding allowing colonial rule to be more effectively challenged • Liberal
immigration needs to be restricted or minority groups need to integrate  During 1960s and 70s many people were drawn to Marxist ideas – believing colonialism is • Expansionist
 Believe supranational pose a threat to national identity and cultural bonds of society an extended form of class oppression
 ‘Euroscepticism’ is particularly strong within the Conservatives  Lenin portrayed colonialism as an economic tool – for capitalist countries to exploit • Cultural
 Defend sovereign national institutions and distinctive national currency, seeing them as vital
signs of national identity


The class struggle then became a struggle against colonial exploitation and oppression
The overthrow of colonial rule implied social revolution as well as political independence
• Anti colonial
 A stable political union cannot be forged out of national, language and cultural diversity  Reaction against the dominance of the West • Thinkers
 Critics say their arguments are based on misguided assumptions  This can be closely linked to religious fundamentalism
 Conservative nationalism can be seen as a form of elite nationalism
 The ‘nation’ is invented and defined by political leaders who will use it for selfish purposes
 Can serve to promote intolerance and bigotry
 Portrays immigrants/foreigners as a threat, legitimizing racialist and xenophobic fears Key Thinkers :

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78)

Expansionist Nationalism
 The dominant image of nationalism is one of aggression and militarism – opposite of self
determination
 Apparent in the late 19th century as European powers ‘scrambled for Africa’ to boost national
glory
 Imperialism of late 19th century was supported by popular nationalism: national prestige was
linked to possession of an empire and colonial victories
 Jingoism described the mood of this popular nationalism
 Aggression and expansionist nationalism reached its highpoint in the inter-war years when
authoritarian/fascist regimes embarked on imperial expansion and world domination
 Chauvinism: some nations are thought to be superior – evident in European imperialism
 Europeans portrayed imperialism as a moral duty thinking it would bring the benefits of
civilization
 National chauvinism comes from a feeling of intense/hysterical national enthusiasm
 Individual is swept away on a tide of patriotic emotion with the desire for aggression,
expansion and war – called ‘integral nationalism’
 Individuals and independent groups lose their identity within an powerful nation – it’s
existence and meaning is beyond the life of any single individual
 Military glory and conquest are the ultimate evidence of national greatness
 The civilian population is effectively militarised – infected with values of loyalty, complete
dedication and self-sacrifice
 When the honour or integrity of nation is questioned, citizens become unimportant
 Strong appeal for the isolated and powerless as it offers security and the prospect of security,
self respect and pride
 Require a heightened sense of belonging to a distinct national group – stimulated by ‘national
integration’: seeing other races as a threat or an enemy
 In the face of an enemy, the nation draws together and experiences its own sense of identity
and importance
 Commonly been reflected in racist ideologies, dividing the world and are a breeding ground for
racist ideas
 French moral and political philosopher
 Commonly viewed as the architect of political nationalism
 Argued the ‘natural man’ could only throw off corruption, exploitation and domination imposed by society through a radical
form of democracy – ‘general will’
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)
 Portrayed as the father of cultural nationalism
 Leading intellectual opponent to the Enlightenment
 Emphasis that the nation is an organic group with a common spirit
 Major work: Reflections of the History of Mankind (1784-91)
Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-72)
 An Italian nationalist
 Liberal nationalist fusing the belief that a nation has a distinctive language and cultural community with principles of liberal
republicanism
 Nations are individual and equal with the right to self-govern
 One of the earliest thinkers to link liberal nationalism with perpetual peace
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)
 As the 28th President he introduced the 14 points – promoting self determination
 Wilsonian liberalism is associated with the idea that constructing a world of nation-states is the best way of preventing war
Charles Maurras (1868-1952)
 Key exponent of right wing nationalism, influencing fascism
 ‘Integral nationalism’ – organic unity of the nation/rejection of individualism/stress on hierarchy and traditional institutions
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948)
 Campaigned for Indian independence
 Ethic of nonviolent resistance gave the movement strong moral authority
 Believed the universe is regulated by the primacy of truth and humankind is ‘ultimately one’
Marcus Garvey (1887-1940)
 Founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)
 Early advocate of black nationalism – establishing black pride
Frantz Fanon (1925-61)
 View on anti-colonial struggle – The Wretched of the Earth (1965)
 Only total revolution and absolute violence can help colonized people to liberate themselves from the constraints of
imperialism
Feminism
Liberal feminism Third-wave feminism
• First wave feminism – early 1900s • A term adapted since the 1990s, emerging due to new issues for women, and the effect of second-wave feminism
• Key text: Mary Wollstonecraft – ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ • Unifying theme – engagement with the politics of difference (including differences between women)
is defined by two basic beliefs: • Women should be regarded as natural humans, should gain • Feminism is extended beyond middle-class, white women
• Women are disadvantaged because of their sex access to education, public life. • Black feminism: portrays sexism and racism as linked systems of oppression. ‘Women of colour’ have particular disadvantages.
• This disadvantage can and should be overthrown • Mill: gender is simply an accident of birth, so no distinction or division based on • Third-wave feminism has been influenced by poststructuralism, which explains the link between power, systems of thought and
gender. communication.
• Second wave feminism – 1960s • Post-modern feminism: questions idea of female identity, distinctive women’s experiences.
If someone is a feminist, what would they want to see happen? • Key text: Betty Friedan – ‘The Feminine Mystique’ • New feminism: seek to address inequalities whilst not policing personal/sexual behaviour (separation of person from political)
• Equality of the sexes/genders TYPES OF FEMINISM
• Myth that women seek fulfilment and security through the • Post-feminism: rejects second-wave feminist issues
• End to disadvantage based on sex • End of subjugation of women in societies • Feminist traditions have emerged out of established ideologies.
domestic • Camille Paglia: attacked portrayal of women as ‘victims’, insisted on need for women to take greater responsibility for sexual/personal
• Increase of number of women in the elite positions in public life • This is due to the fact that they are generally sympathetic towards equality. lives.
sphere. In fact, this causes despair and unhappiness.
• Promotion of rights relating to women, e.g. Abortion • Some established ideologies are not traditionally sympathetic to feminism.
• Based on the principle of individualism. • Naomi Wolf: main barrier is to women’s social advancement are psychological, not political.
• In some areas ‘reactionary feminism’ has emerged e.g. Islamic feminism as a
• Demand for equal rights – in education, public life, pursue a career, etc. • This has been attacked by some as ‘lifestyle feminism.’
reaction to the spread of Western values.
• Suffrage movement – based on idea that equality would be achieved
Origins and developments • Main traditions of feminism:
through the right to vote.
• 1792 - Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Women, the first • Liberal feminism
• Seeks to open up public life to women, not to change the structure of
text of modern feminism was published. • Socialist/Marxist feminism
society.
• 1848 - The Seneca Falls convention in the USA marked the start of the US • Radical feminism Tensions within feminism
• Less attention given to private life.
women’s rights movement. • Third-wave feminism • Equality vs difference
• Assumption: men and women have different natures/inclinations. So the
• 1867 -In the UK, the House of Commons defeated the first attempt to • One tension between equality and difference feminism is the view on gender. Equality feminists, such as
structure of family life is normal.
introduce female suffrage, an amendment to the Second Reform Act, liberal feminists, believe that there is no link between biological sex and gender. They believe gender
• Issue: Can women have it all? This feminism is usually associated with
proposed by John Stuart Mill. differences are created by a society that is dominated by the patriarchy, so biological differences should not
educated, middle-class women, who can take advantage of the right
• 1869 - In the USA, the National Women’s Suffrage Association was set up dictate what gender roles people are attributed to.
to enter public life. It has been criticised for neglecting other forms of
and led by Elizabeth Candy Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. • On the other hand, difference feminists believe that sex is linked to gender. They suggest there is an essential
disadvantage (e.g. Social, economic)
• 1893 - Female suffrage was introduced in New Zealand. difference between men and women. The essentialist perspective suggests that differences created by society
• 1903 - The UK suffrage movement adopted increasingly militant tactics after Equality and difference reflect biological differences, and that these differences reflect different characteristics. For instance, men are
the formation of the Women’s Social and Political Union, led by Emmeline • Liberal feminists have supported the notion of public legal equality between men naturally aggressive and women are naturally empathetic.
and Christabel Pankhurst. and women so they can compete on equal terms. This means equal status in the Socialist feminism • Liberal vs radical
• 1918 - The franchise was extended to women in the UK, but they did not public realm • One difference between liberal and radical feminism can be seen in the views on the public and private
have equal voting rights with men for another decade. • Socialist feminists argue that equal legal rights are meaningless unless women • Belief that women’s disadvantages can be explained by the socio-economic spheres. Liberal feminists believe there is a divide between the public and private realms. Although they wish
• 1920 - The Nineteenth Amendment of the US constitution granted the vote enjoy an equal social status. Equality must be focused in terms of economic power situation. to reform the public realms so there is gender equality in aspects of life, such as politics, they believe what
to American women. – wages, ownership and the concept of waged and unwaged labour. • Key text: Engels – ‘The Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State.’ happens in the private realm should be left up to the individual. Therefore, the sexual division of labour and
• 1963 - Betty Freidan’s The Feminine Mystique was published. • Radical feminists are primarily concerned with equality in family/personal life. This • Capitalism has caused ‘the world historical defeat of the female sex’ distribution of power within the family should not be impacted by reform.
• 1970 - Kate Millett’s Sexual Politics and Germaine Greer’s The Female must mean equal treatment in terms of domestic expectations and responsibilities, • Oppression occurs through the family structure, which ensures men pass property • On the other hand, radical feminists believe in the complete transformation of all spheres of life. They
****** were published. sexual expectations and control of one’s body/reproductive processes. onto their sons. believe that patriarchy causes the oppression of women and that its origin is lie in the structure of the family,
• 1990s - Feminist organisations existed in all western countries and most part • These branches all view gender differences/discrimination as negative. They are • Family is also oppressive a it allows men to control women’s sexuality. domestic and personal life. Therefore, to end the oppression of women, these structures must be overthrown
of the developing world. Many different strands of feminism began to all seen in this sense as egalitarian feminists as they all want some form of equality • Women are confined to a domestic sphere, serving the interests of capitalism. in both the public and private realms.
emerge, e.g. Black feminism and lesbian feminism between the sexes. • They are a reserve army of labour.
• They produce and rear the next generation of workers for free
• They relieve men of the burden of housework, so they spend more time on paid
CORE VALUES employment.
• They give men high status in the family, helping them to forget men’s exploitation
Redefining the political and frustrations Feminism today Are feminism and globalisation compatible or contradictory?
• The traditional notion of what is political places politics in the public sphere, where it is thought of as an interactive activity, such as governmental institutions, protest groups etc • There are divisions over the relative importance of gender and social class. • Are women equal in the UK today?
• Kate Millett defined politics as ‘power structured relationships.’ • Orthodox Marxists – class is more important, overthrowing capitalism will lead to Yes Compatible
• The relationship between state and citizens is therefore clearly political, but relationships such as those between husbands and wives or parents and children are female emancipation • Equal voting rights • Feminism has always had a global orientation – shown in the
also political. • Modern socialist feminists – gender is just as important a division as class. Not • Equal opportunities to pursue careers worldwide growth of women’s groups and organisations.
• For feminists, politics is thought to exist in both the traditional public sphere and the private sphere, enough to just overthrow capitalism. • Equal access to education • Globalisation has opened up opportunities for women in the
• Redefining the political is an important principle for feminists. Traditionally the public sphere of life such as politics, art and work has been seen as a male world. Private activities such • Maternity leave developing world.
as the family home and children are seen as the female world. In this view, women are excluded from politics. • Divorce laws are equal • Growth in ‘feminised’ or ‘pink-collar’ jobs – retail, cleaning.
• Feminists have differed in their views on how to break down the divide between ‘public man’ and ‘private woman’. • More equal division of labour
Radical feminism No Contradictory
• Radical feminists oppose the idea that politics stops at the front door and believe that female oppression is created and sustained by the family institution. They • Second wave feminism – 1960s, 70s
have challenged the ‘politics of everyday life’ – child rearing responsibilities, domestic chores. • Pay is still unequal • Feminist ideas may not be universally applicable – tainted by
• Sought to uncover the influence of patriarchy on all aspects of life • Everyday sexism Eurocentrism, may not apply to non-Western countries.
• Liberal feminists focus on equality of opportunity in the public sphere. They warn against politicising the private sphere, claiming that this is a place of individual • Key texts: Simone de Beauvoir – ‘The Second Sex’
freedom and choice. • Childcare is mostly the preserve of women • Although the number of women in paid work has grown, such trends
• In all walks of life, women are portrayed as inferior and subordinate to men. • Still an imbalance in percentage of MPs, CEOs have been associated with growing vulnerability and exploitation -
• Greer: women are conditioned to a passive sexual role, and haven in effect, been castrated. • Lots of women do not describe themselves as feminists women workers are cheap, usually employed in sectors with fewer
Patriarchy • Millett: patriarchy is a social constant, running through all societies and structures.
• Patriarchy literally means ‘rule by the father’. It is often used more generally to describe the dominance of men and subordination of women. • Feminism is seen as an extremist movement worker’s rights.
• From an early age, boys and girls are conditioned into specific gender identities.
• Patriarchy is an importa concept for feminists because it is used to describe the power relationship between men and women, the structure of the family and the dominance of the • Sexual oppression – the most fundamental feature of society more than other injustices.
father/husband. The dominance of the husband symbolises the male supremacy in all other institutions of life. The family and the male dominance of it lies at the heart of the • Patriarchy is a systematic institutionalised, pervasive process of gender oppression.
systematic process of the male dominance of women, as it reproduces this problem in all other walks of life. • Origins of patriarchy – structure of the family and domestic life
• The concept of patriarchy differs in different cultures. • These structures need to be overthrown
• In western countries, the position of women significantly improved during the 20th century due to the achievement of the vote and broader access to education. • Some radical feminists emphasises the fundamental and unalterable differences
• In other parts of the world, there is still the cruel and violent domination of women by men. between men and women.
• 80 million women in Africa are subject to circumcision • Women should not try to be more like men, but should embrace their sisterhood.
• Brides murders in India • Women have different qualities to men, some of which are superior, e.g. Creativity,
• Different branches of feminism describe patriarchy differently. sensitivity, caring/nurturing
• Liberal feminists use the term to describe the unequal distribution of rights and entitlements in society. It represents the underrepresentation of women in senior • Some advocated a retreat from the male, political world (cultural feminism)
positions and professions. • Some radical feminists advocate revolution.
• Socialist feminists argue that patriarchy is focused on economic domination and inequality is a consequence of capitalism and the class system. • The roots of patriarchy lie in the male character – all men are physically and
• Radical feminists stress the patriarchy. They see it as a systematic and powerful tool of male dominance that oppresses all women. psychologically disposed to oppress women.
• This leads to the idea of feminist separation
Sex and Gender • Brownmiller: men have created an ‘ideology of ****’ to create a sense of fear in women. Even men
• Sex refers to the fixed biological difference between men and women. The most important fixed differences are anatomy and the ability to reproduce. who do not **** benefit from the fear and anxiety that ****
• Gender is a cultural or socialised term which refers to the different roles that society attributes to men and women. promotes.
• An argument against feminist views is that gender differences are natural. Women and men fulfil different roles in society because nature designed them to do so. • Sexual equality would therefore be impossible.
• Feminists believe that just because women had the capacity to have children, that does not mean they should be forced into a predetermined gender role. The link between child • Led to the development of political lesbianism – only lesbians or celibate women can be woman-
bearing and rearing is cultural, not biological. identified (not men-identified)
• Feminists believe that gender differences are created by a society that is dominated by the patriarchy. Biological differences do not fix gender. • Ti-Grace Atkinson: ‘feminism is the theory, lesbianism is the practice.’
• Many feminists believe that human nature is androgynous (sexless), and so they seek to achieve a gender less ‘personhood.’ Sexual differences should have no social or political • Majority of feminists would reject this uncompromising positions and seek equality.
significance.
• ‘Difference’ feminists suggest that there is a nature/essential difference. This essentialist perspective suggests that cultural differences do reflect biological differences, and that these
differences reflect different characteristics.
THINKERS Trigger notes version
• Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) – Vindication of the Modern examples
rights of women. Suggested equal rights for women • Origins and • Objectification of women seen by US president
on the basis of person hood. Influenced by Donald Trump – “grab them by the P****”.
Liberalism.
developments Feminists may argue, much like Wollstonecraft, that
• Simone de Beauvoir (1906-86) – Criticised the • First wave this derogatory comment shows the patriarchal
view of women as belonging to men and in that
patriarchy for representing masculinity as the norm • Second Wave sense denies them personhood.
and femininity as the other.
• Betty Friedan (1921-2006) – The feminine • Third Wave • 2018 – Investigation into gender pay gap – Exposed
gender pay in UK
mystique. Criticised the cultural myths that kept • Core Values • No industry pays women more
women in a domestic role. Later told women not to
deny importance of women in quest for • Redefining the • Men make up the majority of higher paid
personhood. jobs (RYANAIR – 57% women in lower paid
• Kate Millet (1934- ) – Sexual politics. Showed how
political jobs, 3% women in higher paid jobs).
male writes degraded women with sex. Then used (public/private • Fewer than 1 in 7 companies pay women
this to show patriarchal values in society. more than men.
• Germaine Greer (1939- ) – The female eunuch,
divide). • SHOWS WOMEN ARE AT AN ECONOMIC
encouraged women to reengage with their libido as • Patriarchy DISADVANTAGE TO MEN STILL.
• Presidents club charity event 2018 – Hostesses
the patriarchy oppresses them with sexual • Sex and Gender were groped – Women sexualised/harassed – not
repression. Later supported the importance of
childbearing and motherhood. • Equality and treated as equals.
• Jean Bethke Elshtain (1941- ) – Exposed the
public/private divide, how women are excluded
difference
from public life. Later looked at the violent nature • Types
of men unlike women. • Equality fems and
• Andrea Dworkin (1946-2005) – Advocate of radical
lesbianism. Pornography is a tool men use to difference fems.
subjugate women. • Liberal
• Socialist
• Radical
• Black
• Lesbian
• Thinkers
Ecologism
ORIGINS & DEVELOPMENT
•
TYPES
Shallow Deep
From Greek meaning household.
• Victorians had concerns about the environment as they saw the impact of industrialisation. Bright Green / Shallow Ecology
•
•
1962 – Rachel Caron (Silent Spring) - showed negative environmental impact of chemicals.
Quality of life over economic growth.
• Bright Green (or shallow ecology) refers to those environmentalists who have an optimistic and achievable set of proposals
for dealing with the environmental crisis, via science and new technology.   • Basically environmentalism • Challenges anthropocentric
•
•
Chernobyl
Various negative elements – deforestation, acid rain
• Bright green environmentalists focus on possibilities of renewable energy sources; they will point to clean coal technology,
carbon neutral technology, wind and wave turbines and solar panels as large-scale technological solutions to the crisis.
• Recognises there is a problem views.
• They are 'bright' green because they are optimistic about using aproaches that will preserve society in it's current form, and • Still desires to manage the • Reject any idea of human
•
bright greens are 'anthropocentric' meaning they put humans at the center of their ideology.  
Bright green policies are criticised as some people believe  these strategies are impossible to achieve, due to the current economy and not live in supremacy
influence of enterprise on government, or will take so long to achieve that the climate change or environmental breakdown
‘tipping point’ will have passed before there is any real effect.
harmony. • Exist to create a radical social
CORE VALUES
• Uses technology and modern change i.e. through
Sustainability
• Boulding’s argument that humans treat Earth with a ‘Cowboy Economy’ approach; our ‘reckless, exploitative and violent
Dark Green / Deep Ecology
• Dark green or deep ecological thinking is the more radical stream of ecologism. It does not recognise the 'quick fixes' of the practices to resolve the communities – Totnes,
behaviour’ exploits the Earth’s resources. Boulding then continues by labelling the Earth as a ‘Spaceship Earth’ whereby the planet is
•
bright greens and instead advocates a total restructuring of society.
As deep ecology is ‘ecocentric’ (it puts the environment at the heart of the ideology) it is in conflict with more mainstream
problem – reformist transition town.
a ‘closed system’ – non-renewable – and so our reckless behaviour towards the eco-system will drain all of the resources and leave
us in what Schumacher calls ‘entropy’, or a state of decay. ‘anthropocentric’ ideologies (which place human life above all other), such as Liberalism, Socialism and Conservatism. approaches not radical. • Argue for a return to
O ‘Grey parties’ are further criticised for endorsing this reckless ‘Cowboy Economy’ approach.
• Solutions include looking towards renewable resources, or ‘open systems’, such as solar/wind/wave energy.
• Deep ecology regards the earth as a single ecosystem, and humans as just one part of nature, with no more rights than other
species with regard to the Earth’s resources. Deep ecologists also accuse other ideologies of promoting industrialisation and • No real change – just radical permanent culture practices
• Schumacher further proposes a reform to human attitudes, or ‘Buddhist Economics’, in which humans shed their ‘ego-centredness’
•
never-ending economic growth, which is destroying the planet through pollution, destruction of habitats, and climate change.
Deep ecologists strive for a fundamental change in global attitudes to material wealth and economic growth, a reduction in
tinkering. based on nature, not a mastery
which focuses solely on material wealth and instead look to develop a ‘right livelihood’, where social bonds and relationships benefit
over material gain. air travel and international trade, and a reduction in the human population, in order to create a non-industrial world, with of it.
• DICHOTOMY: most people living in small, self-sustained communities.
O Fundis (Deep/STRONG) believe that no material growth should be tolerated whilst Realos (Shallow/WEAK) argue
for sustainable growth. Light Green
• Light Green referes to modererate approaches to environmental politics. Much green thinking within mainstream politics is
Holism light green.
• The idea of looking at the whole, instead of the fragmented parts. • Light green thinkers look at ways in which environmental protection can fit with small lifestyle changes such recycling,
• Capra criticised scientists like Newton who portrayed the Earth as a ‘Newtonian world-machine’ that can be dissected, altered and driving less, using energy saving bulbs and not leaving things on standby.
re-shaped in accordance to human needs and views. Capra alternatively looks to modern science, such as Einstein’s theory of • Criticised by 'darker' ecologists as they believe that small lifestyle changes are simply not doing enough.
relativity and quantum physics, for modern science studies the whole because it recognises the importance of surrounding context,
of individual pieces, to the ultimate outcome. Modernist Ecology / Environmentalism / Sustainable ECOLOGICAL ETHICS
• Religions that present humans as inferior thus appeal to this line of thinking • A form of 'bright green' or 'shallow ecology' thinking • Critique of anthropocentric thinking.
O Christianity and Judaism present humanity as inferior to a greater whole, or God. • Anthropocentric • Emphasis on biocentric equality.
O Paganism relishes Mother Earth and considers her as a single living entity. • It seeks to reconcile ecology with capitalism, by recognising that there are 'limits to growth' as environmental degredation • Belief in animal rights.
 Lovelock taps into this Pagan view and develops the ‘Gaia Hypothesis’ in which Mother earth is threatens prosperity and economic performance. • Care for future generations.
presented as the Goddess Gaia; Gaia is superior as a whole entity to the fragmented entity of • Sustainable development - the capacity for a system to maintain it's health and continue in existence over a period of time • Post materialism & post industrialism.
humans. (slower economic growth) - criticised by dark greens as it is still part of the problem of economic growth - it is just • Freedom as self actualisation.
O Mystical religions are also looked to as a means of supporting Holism; Taoism values nature and the earth in its destroying the planet more slowly.
entirety. • Influenced by Burkean notion that we have obligations to future generations - society is a partnership bettween the living,
dead and yet-to-be-born. RIGHT WING ECOLOGISM
Environmental Ethics • Most modern ecologists favour state intervention as environment is a 'social cost' unrecognised by the market  During the Nazi period
• Goodin’s ‘green theory of value’ whereby resources are valued because they derive from nature as opposed to humans. • Others champion 'green capitalism' which relies on market forces to dictate a shift towards ecologically sound o A ‘back to land’ movement followed industrialisation in Germany
• The concept of futurity is supported by Shallows, for it raises the idea that all humans should consider their exploitative actions for consumption/production.  The German Youth Movement was one of the primary activist groups who took to the mountains and
the sake of future generations. escaped urban life.
O Links to social-ecologists who recognise that humans should all show compassion to each other regardless of sex, Eco-Socialism
o Walter Darre introduced hereditary farm law and so encouraged the notion that life on land was the only truly
race, class etc. • An environmental critique of capitalism - once capitalism is abolished, environmental balance will occur.
• Naess: all living organisms have an ‘equal right to live and bloom’. • Capitalism is the enemy of nature because fulfilling life – was to be encouraged down the generations. He also supported
• Singer developed his idea of ‘specieism’ where different species are valued in accordance to their level of sentience. • Private property encourages the belief that humans have domination over nature  
O Criticised by Deep Ecologists who say Singer’s ideas are still based on anthropocentric ideals. Nature and the • The market economy 'commodifies' nature - it turns it into something that can be bought and sold  
various species should be given ‘intrinsic value’, where they are valued because they are larger than humans. • The capitalist system breeds materialism and consumerism and so leads to relentless growth. organic farmijng with natural fertilisers such as manure, and subsequently created a chain of ‘animal-soil-
• Most green parties tried to reconcile 'red' and 'green' priorities in their early years. However, as the often appalling food-human’ that ensured better care of land was taken.
Ecology environmental record of state-socialist societies were more widely recognised, eco-socialism lost it's appeal. However, it has
 The ‘soft right’
• Looks at the eco-system as independent and studies ‘humans upsetting the balance of nature’ by using the eco-system to meet been argued that these countries were actually examples of state run capitalism rather than true socialism.
o ‘Green capitalism’ which incorporates capitalism with the environment
their own ‘ego-centred’ needs which Schumacher identifies. This is done via industrialisation, so subsequently pollution and the use
Eco-Anarchism o Applies to individual and company levels
of finite resources, as well as through population growth and also the consequent extinction of species.
• All ecologists accept the rejection of anthropocentric attitudes, however, the extent of this rejection varies – SINGER DEVLOPS THE • An environmental critique of hierarchy and authority - once these are abolished, environmental balance will occur.  Individuals recycle
TERMS ‘SHALLOW’ AND ‘DEEP’ ECOLOGY. • Domination over other people is linked to human domination over nature.  Government schemes which include Boris’s congestion charge, as well as offset carbon footprint for
O Deep ecologists reject anthropocentrism completely and instead look to shifting the focus onto nature and • Promotes decentralisation, self-management and direct democracy as they are seen not only to create a balance within companies.
animals: achieving ‘biocentric equality’. society, but a balance between humankind and nature.  People now look for ‘green credentials’ in companies
O Shallows look to the achievement of sustainable growth, whereby human needs and wants are still being met • Eco-Anarchism has influenced the green movement - for example green parties have often  favored the idea of collective
 Eco-conservatism
but at less risk to the economy. leadership rather than having an authoritative figure.
o Want to move back to pre-industrial society because they have a Romantic and nostalgic attachment to a rural way
 Look to limits and restrictions on growth and encourage awareness of the environment
damage. Eco-Femenism of life --- tradition.
• A form of radical feminism which advances an environmental critique of patriarchy - once the patriarchy is abolished, o Realistic methods, however, include protection of woodlands and historic buildings.
Self-Actualisation (From having to being) environmental balance will occur. o PRESERVE TRADITION.
• Fromm argues that humans have come to reject their sense of ‘being in favour of having’. • Male domination over women is linked to human domination over nature.
• Deep ecologists look to this in explaining their views that the ‘human experience’ can only be obtained via ‘environmental • Men are the enemy of nature because their reliance on reason leads them to only understand nature in terms of it's use-value
consciousness’ with the subsequent obtaining of the ‘ecological self’. They reject anthropocentrism in its entirety and view it as an • Women live in harmony with nature as they can engage with it at a deeper psyco-emotional level.
absolute obstacle against the full attainment of one’s ‘being’. • Once the patriarchy is overthrown society will be transformed and the male desire for control will be replaced by a desire to
• Shallows, however, look to ‘Maslow’s hierarchy of needs’ and argue more realistically that humans have become too obsessed with return to a life in partnership with nature 
wealth and materialism to completely renounce it. Subsequently, they must become materially comfortable before they can achieve
‘environmental awareness’. Look to sustainable growth and development and so reject the spiritualistic ways of ‘biocentric equality’
and Deep ecologism.
THINKERS
• Schumacher (1911-77) – Buddhist economics.
Trigger notes version Modern examples
Condemned growth for growths sake. • Origins and developments • Influence of
• Naess (1912-2008) – Father of deep ecology.
Humans don’t own the earth. All things have right • Ecology environmentalism on
to live and bloom.
• Lovelock (1919- ) – Gaia hypothesis, earth is self • Victorians politics world wide is seen
regulating and our success is linked to earths
success.
• Silent Spring after outcry of Donald
• Bookchin (1921-2006) – Anarchist, linked
environmental crisis to lack of organic fabric in
• Disasters Trump pulling out of Paris
society. Ecological principles should be applied to • Core values climate accords.
society.
• Merchant (1936 - ) – Gender oppression linked to • Ecology
environment. Degridation is from mens application
of a mechanistic view of the world. • Holism • Green Party UK policies
• Bahro (1936-98) – Ecological disaster is linked to
capitalism and its quest for growth and profit. Link
• Sustainability aim at a form of weak
class struggle and environmental politics. • Environmental ethics sustainability. Shallow
• From having to being ecologism.
• Types
• Deep
• Shallow
• Modern
• Social
• Feminism
• Socialism
• Anarchism
• Right wing
• Thinkers
Multiculturalism
ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENTS
•
MINORITY RIGHTS

• Multiculturalism is linked with the willingness to recognise minority or ‘multicultural’ rights. Will
Kymlicka identified three types of minority rights;
1.

2.
Polyethnic – Stem from immigration, rights that help maintain and express
cultural distinctiveness.
Self Government – For indigenous peoples in order to have their own political
Cosmopolitan Multiculturalism



Values diversity insofar as it allows for sharing and learning a step on the way to international identity.
Diversity strengthens hybridity by creating ‘one world’.
o
o
Waldron’s ‘pick and mix’ society allows the best traits to be assimilated and the ‘worst’ to be rejected
Endorses cultural diversity and identity politics, where cultures learn from each other.
Multiculturalism has long existed (E.g. the Ottoman Empire), but reached its peak during the 1960’s black consciousness movement in the body (usually by devolution/federalism).
o Believes that cultural mixing broadens moral and political sensibilities
USA characterised by reform and revolution. 3. Representation rights - A way of addressing the underrepresentation in society,
• Reform – involved struggle for civil rights with the leadership of Martin Luther King. ensure all have equal and fair access. o Advantageous because changes to social circumstances and personal needs.
• Revolution - the strategy of non-violent civil disobedience was rejected by revolutionary Black Power movement, advocating separatism • Different from the Liberal view of rights as they belong to a group not an individual – collectivist.  Criticised because stresses unity rather than diversity
with the leadership of the Black Panther Party which advocated armed struggle. • Minority rights are justified:  Also criticised because cosmopolitanism needs a global consciousness whereas multiculturalism focuses on distinctive cultural groups
• The 1960’s and 1970’s witnessed growth of political assertiveness among minority groups expressed through ethnocultural nationalism • Lib Multis say it upholds rights and autonomy of individual. Charles Taylor –
(based on the idea of ethnic and cultural distinctiveness and desire to preserve it). E.g.Quebec, Wales etc Individual self respect from cultural membership (identity from here).
• The common theme in ethnic politics is the desire to challenge economic and social marginalisation and sometimes racial oppression. • Counter oppression – discourages offence. Pluralist Multiculturalism
• Multicultural politics has strengthened due to international migration since 1945. E.g post-war reconstruction. • Redress social injustice.
• The 1990s witnessed the intensification of cross border operations across the globe, creating a ‘hyper mobile planet’. There are two reasons • Indigenous are given more rights – Easier to devolve power (concentrated), have
for this increase; had land and rights taken from them.  Go further than liberals and accept equal validity of illiberal and non liberal views and ideas.
1. Rise in the number of refugees (e.g. 18 million in 1993) due to war, ethnic conflicts and political upheaval in the post- • Minority rights criticized:  Post liberal, no moral standard can claim supremacy.
Cold War era. E.g. Rwanda • Ignores individual rights and differences over group.  Particularist
2. Economic globalization intensified need for international migration. • Limits freedom of expression – offence o Positive Discrimination
• By early 2000’s most western states, including most of EU, had responded to such development by incorporating multiculturalism into their • Prevents integration. o Differences of groups emphasised against dominant ones
policy. This reflects the acceptance that multi-ethnic, multi religious and multi-cultural trends have become irreversible. o However, global • Positive discrimination leads to discrimination against majority and is under o Cultural diversity creates unequal power because interests of minorities given more attention and effort, but also the minorities
terrorism, particularly ‘the war on terror’, pushed multi-cultural politics higher up in the political agenda. mining.
• Supporters of multiculturalism argue cultural recognition and rights help to keep political extremism at bay. (prior to this) do miss opportunities that majority groups have. – This may undermine civic cohesion.
• Opponents of multiculturalism argue multi-cultural politics can provide and legitimise political extremism  Dialectic
DIVERSITY o MOSAIC approach allows individualism within culture
o Parekh: cultural diversity is didactic of Interplay b/t human nature and culture’
Core Themes
• Common themes between Multiculturalism and Nationalism include:  Value Pluralism
Multiculturalism has two meanings:
• Both emphasise the capacity of culture to generate social and political cohesion. o Berlin: ‘live and let live’
1. Descriptive – a society with two or more groups or government response to this.
• Both seek to link politics to patterns of cultural differentiation. o
2. Normative – A positive endorsement of this diversity. Support personal freedom
• • However, while Nationalists believe a stable and successful society consists of shared cultural
Not really an ideology but a platform for debate about balance in society. o Ideologies compete but all are equally legitimate
identity with citizenship, Multiculturalists argue cultural diversity is compatible with political
cohesion. Thus, all forms of Multiculturalists reject that idea that diversity manifests conflict. o Berlin’s idea of value pluralism is, however, limited to societies who respect individual liberties
POLITICS OF RECOGNITION
• Multiculturalism accepts that people can have multiple identities and loyalties; e.g. to their country  Liberal and illiberal cultures cannot be seen to coincide
• of origin and country of settlement. Subsequently, they argue cul tural recognition underpins
Multiculturalists argue minority cultural groups are at a disadvantage in society and remedying this requires significant change. Liberate
political stability since people are willing and able to participate in society because they have a
oppressed groups due to culture difference, rather than class or gender.  For liberals this poses a dilemma of how far to tolerate intolerant or oppressive beliefs.
• firm and secure identity rooted in their own culture. Conversely, denial in cultural recognition
However, multiculturalists have a different approach to addressing social advancement to existing ideologies. Three contrasting approaches:
results in isolation and powerlessness, encouraging extremism and hate politics. E.g. Islamic
1. ’Politics of rights’ is rooted in the ideas of republicanism, associated with Liberalism. Advancement of legal and political
rights and the principle of universal citizenship (idea that all members of society should enjoy the same status and fundamentalism.
• Moreover, Multiculturalists not only believe diversity is desirable but that it should also be
entitlements). E.g. First wave fems. Republicans, therefore, believe social advancement can be bought about through the
celebrated. Diversity benefits both the individual (enabling a stronger sense of cultural identity and CRITICISMS
establishment of formal equality. Thus, this approach is ‘difference-blind’ as it suggests difference is the problem since it
belonging) and society (enabling vigour and vibrancy with a diverse range of life-styles, cultural
leads to discriminatory or unfair treatment and instead proposes that difference should be banished.
practices, traditions and beliefs.) Multiculturalism in this sense parallels ecology since they believe LIBERALISM
2. ’Politics of redistribution’ is rooted in social reformism, associated with Modern Liberalism and Social Democracy. This
cultural diversity benefits society in the same way as biodiversity benefiting an ecosystem. • Conflicts with individualism.
approach advocates universal citizenship and formal equality is not enough since minority groups also experience social
• Multiculturalism also generates cross cultural toleration, understanding and respect of ‘difference’. • Particularism and diversity conflicts with liberal universalism (some values and rights are applicable to all people).
disadvantages like poverty, unemployment, poor housing, lack of education etc. Thus, it argues for equality of
Thus, diversity prevents social polarisation and prejudice. • Some MC may impinge on tolerance, freedom or even human rights.
opportunity to allow all individuals to compete on the basis of personal ability rather than ‘accidents of birth’ ( J.S. Mill).
• However, such beliefs lead to internal tensions within Multiculturalism as it emphasises distinctive
This implies a move away from legal rights to social rights distributed. Thus, this approach argues ‘difference is
cultures living side by side, ignoring this can lead to a pick and mix approach which can in effect CONSERVATISM
temporary’ and could be reformed or removed with change in social structures.
diminish cultural identity since each individual can make up their own. • Diversity in unity is a myth.
3. ‘Politics of recognition’ is rooted in multiculturalism, arguing marginalisation has deeper origins, which go beyond legal,
• We seek the familiar, social stability requires cultural homogeneity.
political or social phenomenon. Rather it is a cultural phenomenon that operates through stereotypes and values about
• Assimilation and restriction of immigration are favoured by conservatives.
how people see themselves and others around them. Thus, they argue universal citizenship and equality of opportunity
is not enough as it sometimes conceals the deeper structures of cultural marginalisation. Instead, multiculturalists
advocate ‘difference’ or the ‘politics of recognition’ over equality. This involves positive endorsement and celebration of FEMINISM
• Object to patriarchal power structures that oppress women.
cultural differences, allowing marginalised groups to assert themselves by reclaiming a sense of cultural identity.
• So are against MC that defends such cultures.
Foundation for politics of recognition arises from postcolonial theories which sought to challenge and overturn the
TYPES
cultural dimensions of imperial rule by establishing the legitimacy of non-western and sometimes anti-western ideas.
E.g. Edward Said’s critique of Eurocentrism (western cultural and political hegemony over the rest of the world) asserted LIBERAL MULTICULTURALISM SOCIAL REFORMISTS
 Support diversity TO AN EXTENT. Do not like ‘deep diversity’ • Its not cultural recognition that holds people back but lack of economic and social power.
such beliefs were upheld through elaborate stereotypes that belittled nonwestern people. Black Nationalism and
o Liberalism is a neutral ideology that is ‘difference blind’ so does not base • Narrows wider sense of social responsibility.
Multiculturalism are thus both seen as an offshoot of post-colonialism.
• Divides people with common economic interests.
its views upon culture or any other form of social cleavage
• Marx would call it false consciousness.
CULTURE AND IDENTITY o Liberals do endorse freedom of expression, but they fundamentally believe
humans are defined as autonomous individuals.
Multiculturalism’s ‘politics of recognition’ suggests culture is also a basic political and social identity; what they call ‘politics of cultural assertion’. o Only tolerate the tolerant
Thus, pride and assertion in one’s culture gives people a sense of cultural identity together with social and historical rootedness. In its extreme
o Also differentiate between the public and private sphere, so self-regarding ISSUES
form, however, this can bread ‘culturalism’ or Cultural Nationalism.
• Cultural politics has been shaped by two forces : and other-regarding actions are also considered.
• Communitarianism – challenges Liberal universalism (idea that as individuals people in all societies and cultures share the  In France, for instance, the freedom of wearing hijabs is
same ‘inner’ identity). Conversely, they advocate a shift to particularism which emphasises the distinctiveness of a group. allowed only in the public sphere: it is prohibited in the
Identity in this sense links the personal to the social and views the individual as ‘embedded’ in a particular cultural, social, private sphere because believe that civil allegiances should
institutional or ideological context. Thus, multiculturalism advances a communitarian view of human nature which be divorced from cultural identity.
suggests people cannot be understood ‘outside’ society but are shaped by social and cultural structures within it.
o Liberals also value personal freedom, which some cultures encroach
MacIntyre and Sandel portray the idea of the abstract individual, aka the ‘unencumbered self’, as a recipe for rootless
atomism since groups and communities give people a sense of identity and moral purpose. *Note: while Liberals advocate  Female circumcision is an example of a cultural practice
universalism, they do not reject multiculturalism outright due to the emergence of Liberal Multiculturalism. that fully intrudes upon the rights of women. Liberals do not
• Identity politics – broad term which includes a range of political trends and ideological developments, ranging from condone the overriding of personal liberties and rights for
Ethnocultural Nationalism and Religious Fundamentalism to second-wave Feminism and Pluralist Multiculturalism. All cultural practices.
these form of identity politics ideologies unite in their rejection of Liberal universalism, arguing that it generates
oppression and cultural imperialism as universalism acts as a façade for dominant groups in society; white wealthy men.
Thus, subordinate groups are either defined inferior or forced to identify with the values and interest of dominant group;  Liberal tolerance NOT morally neutral.
their oppressor. Identity politics, therefore, views culture as a source of oppression BUT also a source of liberation and  Requires liberal framework
empowerment, particularly when it seeks to develop a ‘pure’ or ‘authentic’ sense of identity. In this sense identity politics  Cultural identity a private matter
develops a combative character, imbued with a psycho-emotional element; it merges the personal and the political.
THINKERS
• Berlin (1909-97) – Conflicts of interest are natural. Trigger notes version Modern examples
Value pluralism, post liberal.
• Said (1935-2003) - Orientalism, criticised
• Origins and developments • Over the years migration to
enlightenment and western narratives. • Revolution the UK from the EU has
• Taylor (1931- ) – Politics of recognition.
• Parekh (1935- ) – Pluralist MC, what is moral or • Reform become a hot topic. THIS
reasonable is dictated by culture. Affirmative
action. • Post War WAS A FOCAL POINT FOR
• Tully (1946- ) – Pluralist, need for indigenous
peoples to have extra rights. • Globalisation THE LEAVE CAMPAIGN IN
• Waldron (1953- ) – hybridity, humans have a
fractured nature not from one source and these
• Core values THE EU REFERENDUM. This
influence and combine. • Minority rights gives weight to the
• Kymlicka (1962- ) – Minority rights.
• Politics of recognition conservative criticism of
• Culture & Identity MC.
• Diversity • Issue in Germany between
• Types German nationals and Syrin
• Liberal refugees, failure to
• Pluralist assimilate.
• Cosmopolitan • Support for MC as there
• Criticism was an outcry for nations
• Liberal to accept Syrian refugees.
• Conservative USA REFUSED TO TAKE
• Social reform ANY.
• Feminists
• Thinkers