RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
Reported by:
SAMIN, Javaniya
MAMENTONG, Reem
Internal Respiration
- Exchange of gases between blood and
the cells.

External Respiration
- Exchange between blood and inhaled
air.
Internal respiration occurs in all tissues of the
body but external respiration –the function of
respiratory system occurs only in the lungs,
specifically across the ultra-thin blood air
barrier that separates the blood in the
capillaries from the air in the air sacs (alveoli)
in these organs.
 Component organs of The
Respiratory System
• Lungs
• Organs that conduct air to
and from the lungs. (nose,
pharynx, larynx, trachea
and main bronchi.
 Nose
Hollow organ whose cavity is divided into two
irregular-shaped spaces (nasal cavities or
fossae) by a common cartilaginous wall (nasal
septum).

Each nasal cavity is bounded anteriorly by an

orifice (Anterior naris;nostril) and posteriorly,
where it is continuous with the pharynx, by
another orifice (posterior naris)
Externally, the nose is covered by skin
while internally, it is lined by mucous
membrane(mucosa) except at the
vestibule which is lined by skin.

The term mucosa refers to the moist

lining not only of the nasal cavities but
also of the luminal surface of the
respiratory, digestive and genitourinary
tract.
The hairs of the skin that lines the
vestibule are coarse and stiff. They
act as gross filter for inhaled air.

Respiratory epithelium
-Epithelium of nasal mucosa.
Except:
-At the junction of the vestibule
and the rest of the nasal cavity.
-At the roof of the cavity and
adjacent areas.
The secretions of the glands in the
lamina propria and of the goblet and
serous cells in the epithelium keeps the
nasal cavity moist while the venous
plexuses serve to warm the air that
passes through the nose.
Respiratory epithelium

-refers to the ciliated pseudostratified

columnar epithelium that lines not only
the greater part of the nasal cavities but
also many segments of the conducting
portion of the respiratory system.
Cell types that rest on Basal Lamina
• Ciliated columnar cell
• Goblet cell
• Brush cell
• Serous cell
• Basal cell
• Granule cell (Kulchitsky cell)
Olfactory Epithelium (organ of Olfaction)
- The epithelium at the roof of the nasal cavity and over the superior
turbinate and adjacent parts of the nasal septum.
- Yellowish brown.
- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
- No goblet cell.
- Basement membrane indistinct.
3 Types of Cells that all rest on the same basal lamina
comprise the olfactory epithelium:
- Sustentacular cell
- Olfactory cell
- Basal cell
Sustentacular cell
- Or supporting cells are tall,
slender cells that are broad at
their apices and narrow at their
bases.
Olfactory cells
- Spindle shaped, bipolar
neurons that lie between the
sustentacular cells.
The dendrite of the olfactory cells passes
between two adjacent sustentacular cells to
terminate in a small bulbous expansion, the
olfactory vesicle, on the surface of the
epithelium.
The axon (olfactory nerve fiber) of the
olfactory cell is unmyelinated and about 0.2 um
in diameter.
The Basal Cells
- Are small, rounded or conical, deeply-staining
cells that occupy the area between the bases of
the sustentacular cells and olfactory cells.
Paranasal sinuses
- Which are named according to the bone
where they are located .
- Frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal and
sphenoidal.
- Make the face lighter by reducing its
bony mass.
- Also serve as resonating chambers for
speech.
Pharynx
- Funnel-shaped
fibromuscular tube that
extends from the base of
the skull to the skull of the
level of the hyoid bone
where it is continuous with
the esophagus.
From above downwards, the pharynx is
successively behind the nasal cavity
(nasopharynx), oral cavity (oropharynx), and
the Larynx (laryngopharynx).

Histologic layers that make up the wall of the

digestive tract are:
Mucosa (tunica mucosa; mucous membrane)
Submucosa (tunica submucosa)
Muscularis externa
Adventitia
 Mucosa of Pharynx consists only of an epithelium and lamina propria.
- Nonkeratinized stratified squamous in the oropharynx and laryngopharynx.

Submucosa
- Exist in the pharynx in only two areas, the lateral wall of the nasopharynx and terminal
portion of the laryngopharynx.
- Or Lamina propria blends with the connective tissue that envelops the muscle bundles
of the underlying muscularis externa.

Muscularis externa of the pharynx

- Consists of two layers of named skeletal but involuntary muscle fibers:
- An inner layer (where muscle fibers are longitudinally arranged).
- Outer layer where the muscle fibers are circularly or obliquely arranged)
Adventitia of the pharynx
- Blends with the surrounding
structures.
Larynx (voice box)
- Connects the
pharynx to the
trachea and serves an
important role in
phonation.
Framework of the Larynx
Unpaired cartilage:
• Thyroid
• Cricoid
• Epiglottic
Paired cartilage:
• Corniculate
• Cuneiform
• Arytenoid
Extrinsic muscles
-Connect the larynx to the surrounding structures.
Intrinsic muscles
- Originate and insert within the larynx.
Trachea
- Is permanently patent tube that
extends from the cricoid
cartilage where it communicates
with the larynx to the level of
the sternal angle where it
bifurcates to form two (left and
right) main bronchi.
4 histologic layer of the wall of Trachea:
• Mucosa
• Submucosa
• Cartilage and muscle layer
• Adventitia

The tracheal mucosa consist of a respiratory epithelium that has a very thick
basement membrane and an abundance of goblet cells and a lamina propria
and MALT that exhibit occasional lymphoid nodules.

The tracheal submucosa consist of loose connective tissue where numerous

mixed tubuloalveolar glands (tracheal glands; bronchial submucosal glands)
are embedded.
The tracheal Cartilages are enveloped by perichondrium
which merges with the underlying submucosa and the
underlying adventitia.

The tracheal adventitia blends with the

surrounding structures.
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INTRO G
Main Bronchi

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SECTION H
The main bronchi (right and left) that

A
supply the right and left lungs, respectively,

SECTION B
are morphologically identical with the trachea,
except in few aspects. They have smaller

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caliber, thinner respiratory epithelium, and

SECTION C
fewer submucosal glands. Furthermore, in the
main bronchi, a discontinuous thin smooth

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muscle layer, instead of elastic tissue,

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SECTION K
separates the mucosa from the submucosa.
The cartilages, instead of being open

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posteriorly, form discontinuous rings around

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the lumen.
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INTRO

Lungs ● Structures that comprise the root of the

lung:

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● are a pair of conical organs that occupy the 1. Main bronchus

A
greater part of the thoracic cavity
● separated from each other by the heart and 2. Pulmonary artery and veins

SECTION B
other structures in the mediastinum
● each lung has an apex that rises to the 3. Bronchial arteries and veins

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neck and a base that rests on the

SECTION C
diaphragm, three borders (anterior, 4. Lymphatic vessels
inferior, and posterior), and two surfaces

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(costal and mediastinal) 5. Nerves

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○ costal surface of either lung is
● Lungs are divided by fissures into lobes
related to the ribs and the costal

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cartilages

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○ Right Lung has three lobes
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○ mediastinal surface is related to the ○ Left Lung has two lobes

mediastinal structures, and presents a

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triangular depression called hilus

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where the structures that comprise the
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Lungs Pleura

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• a double layer of fibrous

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tissue that enveloped each

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lung

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• Parietal pleura – outer
layer of pleura that

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adheres to the thoracic

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wall

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• Visceral pleura – inner

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layer of pleura that
adheres to the substance

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of the lung

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• Parietal and visceral pleura

 continuous with each other at the

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root of the lungs, they are
separated by space (pleural
cavity), which contains a small

A
amount of serous fluid

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 Histologically, made up of
connective tissue that has an

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abundance of elastic fibers and

SECTION C
relative paucity of cellular
elements that consist mainly of

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fibroblasts and macrophages
 richly supplied with lymphatic

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and blood vessels and nerve
fibers

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 their free surface (related to

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plural cavity) is lined with
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mesothelium whose cells are

responsible for the minimal

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amount of fluid in the pleural

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cavity
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Bronchial Tree

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● refers to these generations of branches

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● main bronchus ramifies dichotomously a

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variable number of times-often more than

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20

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○ immediately upon entering the lung,

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main bronchus divides and form

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secondary bronchi (lobar bronchi)
(right lung has 3 lobes, left lung has 2

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lobes)

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■ secondary bronchi divide
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further into tertiary bronchi

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(segmental bronchi) (right lung

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has 10, left lung has 8)
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Bronchial Tree ● a tertiary bronchus and the area of the

lung that it supplies comprise a

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bronchopulmonary segment (right lung
has 10, left lung has 8)

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○ tertiary bronchi ramify into few
generations of progressively smaller

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bronchi before giving off bronchioles

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■ bronchioles ramify a few times

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and then give rise to lobular

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bronchioles

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● lobular bronchioles

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supplies a lung lobule, of
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which there are 30-60 per

bronchopulmonary segment

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Bronchial Tree

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● lung lobules are separated from each other

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by incomplete fibrous septa, they vary

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greatly in size and shape
● peripheral lobules tend to be pyramidial,

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centrally located are irregular in shape

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● lobular bronchiole enters a lung lobule at
its apex in the company of the

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interlobular branches (branches that

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supply the lobule) of the pulmonary and
bronchial arteries, within lobule, the

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branching pattern of these arteries mirrors

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the branching pattern of the bronchial tree
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● lobular bronchiole give off terminal

bronchioles which, in turn, give rise to

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respiratory bronchioles

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Bronchial Tree

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● A few alveoli and alveolar sacs (clusters

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of alveoli) arise directly from the wall of

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respiratory bronchioles, but respiratory
bronchioles end by giving off alveolar

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ducts (tiny tubes from which numerous

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alveolar sacs and alveoli arise)

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● Intrapulmonary bronchi
Bronchi
○ refer to all the bronchi that are within

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the lung including secondary,
● either extrapulmonary or tertiary and their subsequent

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intrapulmonary in terms of location branches

SECTION B
● Extrapulmonary bronchi – refer to the
main bronchi ○ Bigger intrapulmonary bronchi -

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the epithelium is lower and the

SECTION C
mucous membrane is thrown into
folds, perhaps as a consequence of the

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contraction of the smooth muscle

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layer

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○ Smaller intrapulmonary bronchi –

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cartilages are in the form of irregular
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plated, the circular band of smooth

CLICK ON THE IMAGE TO muscle that separates the lamina

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ENLARGE IT propria from the submucosa is more

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prominent
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Bronchioles ● smaller bronchioles – epithelium are no

more goblet cells but there is population of

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tall cuboidal, slender, non-ciliated cells

● less than 1 mm in diameter called Clara cells whose rounded apices
● easy to tell apart from the intrapulmonary possess microvilli that often jut out of the

SECTION B
bronchi because their wall has no surface of epithelium
cartilage, submucosal gland, or lymphoid

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nodule

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● bifurcate repeatedly before ending as
lobular bronchioles

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● its epithelium is still ciliated but it

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progressively diminishes in height and
transforms from pseudostratified

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proximally to simple columnar and to

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simple cuboidal distally
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● large bronchioles – epithelium consists

essentially of the same cells that are

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present In typical respiratory epithelium

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except that there are no serous cells
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Bronchioles ● its lamina contains loose collection of

MALT

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● it is separated from the submucosa by a

● Clara cells distinct smooth muscle layer where the
muscle fibers are irregularly arranged

SECTION B
○ have dense secretory cytoplasmic
● its submucosa consist of loose connective
granules that contain surface active
tissue, merges with the lung parenchyma

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lipoproteins that are evidently similar

SECTION C
to pulmonary surfactant that reduces
surface tension

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○ also stem cells that can divide to
replace the other existing cells in the

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epithelium

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○ in humans it is present only in
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bronchioles, but in lower animals they

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are also present even in bronchi

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INTRO

Bronchioles

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1. Terminal bronchioles
● 5 to 7 arise from lobular bronchiole shortly

SECTION B
after entering a lung lobule
● Small tubes less than 0.5 mm in diameter

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● Considered as last segment of the

SECTION C
conducting portion of the respiratory
system

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● Their epithelium is simple cuboidal

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● Largely non-ciliated
● Smooth muscle fibers that form bands

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that separated the lamina propria from the

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submucosa are still prominent
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● Ciliated cells are present together with

brush cells, granule cells, basal cells and

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clara cells
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● No goblet cells
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INTRO

Bronchioles

SECTION H
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2. Respiratory bronchioles
● 2 or more are given off by each terminal

SECTION B
bronchiole
● Short (1-4) mm) tiny tubes

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● Walls consists of simple epithelium and a

SECTION C
thin layer of connective tissue
● Epithelium is simple cuboidal, but

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becomes simple squamous distally

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● populated by granule cells, basal cells,
brush cells, numerous clara cells

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● In bigger respiratory bronchioles –

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occasional ciliated cells exist but none in
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smaller

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Alveolar Ducts

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● thin-walled conical tubes that are lined by

simple squamous epithelium
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● walls of it contains scanty connective
tissue elements where occasional smooth
muscle fibers are embedded

SECTION C
● Alveoli and alveolar ducts arise are so
numerous that their openings occupy

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practically the entire wall of the alveolar

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ducts
● Wall of alveolar ducts is seen as consisting

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simply of knob-like structures that guard

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the entrances into the alveoli and alveolar
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sacs

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D SECTION
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Alveolar Ducts
INTRO SECTION A SECTION B
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INTRO

Alveolar Sacs and ● The pores usually unclogged with

pulmonary surfactant, may serve as
Alveoli

SECTION H
SECTION A

alternate routes for passage of air into

● Alveoli arise individually or in clusters alveoli that have an obstructed main
known as alveolar sacs from either supply route; as migration routes for the
SECTION B

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respiratory bronchioles or alveolar ducts pulmonary alveolar macrophages;
● Alveoli are thin-walled polyhedral sacs and/or as storage of pulmonary
that are 200-250 um in diameter. They are surfactant.

SECTION C
open on one side to allow entry of air from
either a respiratory bronchiole or an

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alveolar duct, depending on which tube

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they arise from.
● Alveoli in 2 lungs estimated to number

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around 300 million, they are very closely

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packed and share with adjacent alveoli a
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common wall (interalveolar septum) that

is perforated by round or oval holes

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(alveolar pores)—up to 7 per alveolous—

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that are 2-13 um in diameter.
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Interalveolar Septum
(Alveolar Wall)

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● very thin wall merely a little over 0.2 um

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wide in most places

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● consists of a core/framework of connective

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tissue that is overlaid on its luminal
surfaces with a simple squamous

SECTION C
epithelium
● Connective tissue core of alveolar septum

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,

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contains: collagen elastic, and reticular

fibers, several types of cells: mast cells ,

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,

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plasma cells lymphocytes, and
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interstitial fibroblasts which differ from

ordinary fibroblasts in that they contain

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more actin filaments, suggestive of the

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possibility that they are contractile , and
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Interalveolar Septum ● rest on a basal lamina that is supported by a

small amount of connective tissue, except in

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Epithelial cells of the Interalveolar Septum those areas of the epithelium that are
associated with capillaries where the basal

A
1. Type I alveolar cell lamina of the epithelium is in direct contact

SECTION B
often fuses with basal lamina of the
○ pneumonocyte type 1 capillary endothelium

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○ pulmonary epithelial cell

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○ small alveolar cell

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● stretched very thinly in such a way that
they cover 95% of the alveolar surface

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● less than 0.2 um thick, except in areas

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where the nucleus is present
● they form tight junctions with each other
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and with the type II alveolar cells

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 SECTION G
INTRO

Interalveolar Septum ● rest on a basal lamina that is supported by a

small amount of connective tissue, except in

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Epithelial cells of the Interalveolar Septum those areas of the epithelium that are
associated with capillaries where the basal

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1. Type I alveolar cell lamina of the epithelium is in direct contact

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often fuses with basal lamina of the
○ pneumonocyte type 1 capillary endothelium

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○ pulmonary epithelial cell

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○ small alveolar cell

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● stretched very thinly in such a way that
they cover 95% of the alveolar surface

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● less than 0.2 um thick, except in areas

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where the nucleus is present
● they form tight junctions with each other
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and with the type II alveolar cells

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Interalveolar Septum

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Epithelial cells of the Interalveolar Septum

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2. Type II alveolar cell

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○ pneumonocyte type II

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○ great alveolar cell
● more numerous (60% of epithelial cells)

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than the type I alveolar cells

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● account for only 5% of the epithelial cover
of the alveoli

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● much larger

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● occur among the type I alveolar cells either
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singly or in groups or 2 or 3
● they bulge into the alveolar lumen or

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occupy niches in the alveolar wall

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Interalveolar Septum

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Epithelial cells of the Interalveolar Septum

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2. Type II alveolar cell

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● seen in LM preparations as cuboidal or
round cells with a large, round nucleus

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and prominent nucleolus

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● free surface contains short microvilli
● Lamellar bodies – ovoid, membrane-

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bound inclusions that is most distinctive

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feature of their cytoplasm which are the
secretory granules for pulmonary

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surfactant (substance that reduces

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alveolar surface tension and prevents
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collapse of the alveoli at the end of

expiration

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Pulmonary Alveolar
Macrophages

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● most numerous cells in the alveoli but they

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do not form part of the interalveolar
septum, some attached but most float free

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in the alveolar lumens

SECTION C
● vary in size from 15 to 40 um
● they are avid phagocytes and comprise the

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first line of defense of the lungs

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● contain numerous membrane-bound
cytoplasmic inclusion

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,
○ phagocytosed materials mainly
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dust particles (reason why

pulmonary alveolar macrophages

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often called dust cells)
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Blood-Air Barrier

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● ultra-thin tissue in the interalveolar septum

that separates the blood in pulmonary
SECTION B

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capillary from the air in an alveolus
● consists of the:
● pneumonocyte type I (pulmonary
SECTION C

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epithelial cell)
● basal lamina of the alveolar epithelium
● basal lamina of the capillary

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endothelium
● capillary endothelial cell

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● often, the 2 basal laminae fuse together to

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form a common basal lamina for the
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epithelial and endothelial cells

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Blood and Lymphatic

Vessels of the Lungs

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Two sets of arteries that supply the lungs:

1. Pulmonary arteries
SECTION B

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● arise from the pulmonary trunk, bring
venous blood to the lungs for oxygenation
● their branches accompany the bronchial
SECTION C

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tree as far as the respiratory bronchioles,
then they break up into capillaries
(pulmonary capillaries) that form a rich

SECTION K
SECTION D

network in the interalveolar septa where

the blood they contain is oxygenerted and
the CO2 in their plasma is released

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○ Oxygeneraed blood is collected by

venules (tributaries of the pulmonary

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veins) that run along the interlobular

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connective tissue
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Blood and Lymphatic

Vessels of the Lungs

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SECTION A

2. Bronchial arteries
SECTION B

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● arise directly or indirectly from the aorta
● they carry oxygenated blood that supplies
the wall of the different segments of the
SECTION C

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bronchial tree as far distally as the
respiratory bronchioles, the rest of the
lung parenchyma, the pleura, and the

SECTION K
SECTION D

connective tissue of the lung

● much of blood from bronchial arteries is

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drained by the pulmonary veins, the rest

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is drained by the bronchial veins which in
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turn, drain into azygos system

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Blood and Lymphatic The vein that drains the lobule joins the
branches of the pulmonary and the bronchial
Vessels of the Lungs

SECTION H
SECTION A

arteries at the apex of the lobule, and from

There is no communication between the there on, the three vessels travel together
pulmonary and bronchial arteries except in proximally as far as the hilus of the lung
SECTION B

their terminal branches. In routine histologic
sections, the branches of 2 arteries are
distinguishable from each other because the
SECTION C
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● Lymphatic vessels – travel in the
interlobular septa and are the continuous

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branches of the bronchial artery are with the bigger lymphatic vessels beneath
considerably smaller. In addition, they have the pleura.

SECTION K
SECTION D

thick walls in relation to their lumens.

 
The branches of the 2 that supply a lobule

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enter the lobule at the apex together with the
bronchiole. Within lobule, the branching
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patterns of the bronchial and pulmonary

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arteries mirror those of the bronchial tree.

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