Digital Modulation

Lecture-1,
Teguh Firmansyah, M.T.
September 2018
D ATA P ERSONAL
Nama Lengkap : Teguh Firmansyah, S.T, M.T
NIP : 198710212012121001
Pekerjaan : Dosen - Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa
Kelamin : Laki-laki
Status : Menikah  
Alamat : Jl. H.Amat II RT.03/03. Kukusan.  
  Beji. Depok 16425.
  Mobile Phone : 081321661551
E-mail : teguh_tea@yahoo.co.id
  : teguh_firmansyah1@gmail.com

P ENDIDIKAN F ORMAL
Doktor : Teknik Elektro. Universtas Indonesia.
2018 – sekarang.

Magister : Teknik Telekomunikasi. Fakultas Teknik. Universitas Indonesia. ( 2010 – 2012 )

Final Project (tesis) : Rancang Bangun Concurrent Multiband LNA dengan Menggunakan
Multisection Impedance Transformer
Sarjana : Teknik Elektro. Fakultas Teknik. Universitas Indonesia. ( 2006 – 2010 )
Final Project ( skripsi ) : Perancangan Dielektrik Resonator Oscillator Untuk Mobile WiMAX pada
Frekuensi 2.3 GHz dengan Penambahan Coupling /4.
SMA : SMA Negeri 3 Bandung
Course Books
Text:
Digital Communications: Fundamentals and
Applications, By “Bernard Sklar”, Prentice Hall, 2nd
ed, 2001.  
Probability and Random Signals for Electrical
Engineers, Neon Garcia

References:
Digital Communications, Fourth Edition, J.G.
Proakis, McGraw Hill, 2000. 
Course Outline
Today’s Goal

 Review of Basic Probability

 Digital Communication Basic
Communication

 Main purpose of communication is to transfer information

from a source to a recipient via a channel or medium.

 Basic block diagram of a communication system:

Source Transmitter Channel Receiver

Recipient
Brief Description
 Source: analog or digital
 Transmitter: transducer, amplifier, modulator, oscillator, power
amp., antenna
 Channel: e.g. cable, optical fibre, free space
 Receiver: antenna, amplifier, demodulator, oscillator, power
amplifier, transducer
 Recipient: e.g. person, (loud) speaker, computer
 Types of information
Voice, data, video, music, email etc.

 Types of communication systems

Public Switched Telephone Network (voice,fax,modem)
Satellite systems
Radio,TV broadcasting
Cellular phones
Computer networks (LANs, WANs, WLANs)
Information Representation
 Communication system converts information into electrical
electromagnetic/optical signals appropriate for the transmission
medium.

 Analog systems convert analog message into signals that can

propagate through the channel.

 Digital systems convert bits(digits, symbols) into signals

 Computers naturally generate information as characters/bits

 Most information can be converted into bits
 Analog signals converted to bits by sampling and quantizing
(A/D conversion)
 Why digital?
 Digital techniques need to distinguish between discrete symbols
allowing regeneration versus amplification

 Good processing techniques are available for digital signals, such

as medium.

 Data compression (or source coding)

 Error Correction (or channel coding)(A/D conversion)
 Equalization
 Security

 Easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques

Channel Noise affects Reliability

signal noise signal + noise

High
SNR

virtually error-free
signal noise signal + noise
Low
SNR
error-prone
Average Signal Power
SNR =
Average Noise Power

SNR (dB) = 10 log10 SNR

 Shannon Channel Capacity
 If transmitted power is limited, then as M increases spacing between
levels decreases
 Presence of noise at receiver causes more frequent errors to occur as
M is increased

Shannon Channel Capacity:

The maximum reliable transmission rate over an ideal channel with
bandwidth W Hz, with Gaussian distributed noise, and with SNR S/N is
C = W log2 ( 1 + S/N ) bits per second

 Reliable means error rate can be made arbitrarily small by proper

coding
 Basic Digital Communication Transformations
 Formatting/Source Coding
 Transforms source info into digital symbols (digitization)
 Selects compatible waveforms (matching function)
 Introduces redundancy which facilitates accurate decoding
despite errors
 It is essential for reliable communication
 Modulation/Demodulation
 Modulation is the process of modifying the info signal to
facilitate transmission
 Demodulation reverses the process of modulation. It
involves the detection and retrieval of the info signal
 Types
 Coherent: Requires a reference info for detection
 Noncoherent: Does not require reference phase information
Basic Digital Communication Transformations
 Coding/Decoding
Translating info bits to transmitter data symbols
Techniques used to enhance info signal so that they are
less vulnerable to channel impairment (e.g. noise, fading,
jamming, interference)
 Two Categories
 Waveform Coding
 Produces new waveforms with better performance
 Structured Sequences
 Involves the use of redundant bits to determine the
occurrence of error (and sometimes correct it)
 Multiplexing/Multiple Access Is synonymous with resource
sharing with other users
 Frequency Division Multiplexing/Multiple Access
(FDM/FDMA
Performance Metrics
 Analog Communication Systems
 Metric is fidelity: want mˆ (t )  m(t )
 SNR typically used as performance metric

 Digital Communication Systems

Metrics are data rate (R bps) and probability of bit error
 P  p( bˆ  b) 


 Symbols already known at the receiver

 Without noise/distortion/sync. problem, we will never
make bit errors
Main Points
 Transmitters modulate analog messages or bits in case of a DCS
for transmission over a channel.

 Receivers recreate signals or bits from received signal (mitigate

channel effects)

 Performance metric for analog systems is fidelity, for digital it is

the bit rate and error probability.
Why Digital Communications?
 Easy to regenerate the distorted signal
 Regenerative repeaters along the transmission path can
detect a digital signal and retransmit a new, clean (noise
free) signal
 These repeaters prevent accumulation of noise along the
path
 This is not possible with analog communication
systems
 Two-state signal representation
 The input to a digital system is in the form of a
sequence of bits (binary or M_ary)
 Immunity to distortion and interference
 Digital communication is rugged in the sense that it is more
immune to channel noise and distortion
Why Digital Communications?
 Hardware is more flexible
 Digital hardware implementation is flexible and permits

the use of microprocessors, mini-processors, digital

switching and VLSI
 Shorter design and production cycle
 Low cost

 The use of LSI and VLSI in the design of components and

systems have resulted in lower cost
 Easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital

signals
 Digital multiplexing techniques – Time & Code Division

Multiple Access - are easier to implement than analog

techniques such as Frequency Division Multiple Access
Why Digital Communications?
 Can combine different signal types – data, voice, text, etc.
 Data communication in computers is digital in nature
whereas voice communication between people is analog in
nature
 The two types of communication are difficult to combine
over the same medium in the analog domain.
 Using digital techniques, it is possible to combine
both format for transmission through a common
medium
 Encryption and privacy techniques are easier to
implement
 Better overall performance
 Digital communication is inherently more efficient than
analog in realizing the exchange of SNR for bandwidth
 Digital signals can be coded to yield extremely low rates
and high fidelity as well as privacy
Why Digital Communications?
Disadvantages
 Requires reliable “synchronization”
 Requires A/D conversions at high rate
 Requires larger bandwidth
 Nongraceful degradation
 Performance Criteria
 Probability of error or Bit Error Rate
Goals in Communication System Design
 To maximize transmission rate, R
 To maximize system utilization, U
 To minimize bit error rate, Pe
 To minimize required systems bandwidth, W
 To minimize system complexity, Cx
 To minimize required power, Eb/No
Comparative Analysis of Analog and
Digital Communication
Digital Signal Nomenclature

 Information Source
 Discrete output values e.g. Keyboard
 Analog signal source e.g. output of a microphone
 Character
 Member of an alphanumeric/symbol (A to Z, 0 to 9)
 Characters can be mapped into a sequence of binary digits
using one of the standardized codes such as
 ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
Digital Signal Nomenclature

 Digital Message
 Messages constructed from a finite number of symbols; e.g., printed
language consists of 26 letters, 10 numbers, “space” and several
punctuation marks. Hence a text is a digital message constructed from
about 50 symbols
 Morse-coded telegraph message is a digital message constructed from
two symbols “Mark” and “Space”
 M - ary
 A digital message constructed with M symbols
 Digital Waveform
 Current or voltage waveform that represents a digital symbol
 Bit Rate
 Actual rate at which information is transmitted per second
Digital Signal Nomenclature

 Baud Rate
 Refers to the rate at which the signaling elements are

transmitted, i.e. number of signaling elements per

second.

 Bit Error Rate

 The probability that one of the bits is in error or simply

the probability of error

Fundamental Issues in
Transmission Media
d meters

Communication channel

t = d/c
t=0

 Information bearing capacity

 Amplitude response & bandwidth
 dependence on distance
 Susceptibility to noise & interference
 Error rates & SNRs
 Propagation speed of signal
 c = 3 x 108 meters/second in vacuum
  = c/√speed of light in medium where  is the dielectric constant of
the medium
  = 2.3 x 108 m/sec in copper wire;  = 2.0 x 108 m/sec in optical fiber
Communications systems &
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Frequency of communications signals
Analog Optical
DSL Cell WiFi
telephone fiber
phone Frequency (Hz)

102 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024

Ultraviolet light

Gamma rays
Infrared light
Power and
telephone

Broadcast

Microwave

Visible light
radio

radio

X-rays
106 104 102 10 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14
Wavelength (meters)
Wireless & Wired Media
Wireless Media
 Signal energy propagates in
space, limited directionality
 Interference possible, so
spectrum regulated
 Limited bandwidth
 Simple infrastructure:
antennas & transmitters
 No physical connection
between network & user
 Users can move
Wired Media
 Signal energy contained &
guided within medium
 Spectrum can be re-used in
separate media (wires or
cables), more scalable
 Extremely high bandwidth
 Complex infrastructure:
ducts, conduits, poles, right-
of-way
FO today : 69.1 terabits
Attenuation
 Attenuation varies with media
 Dependence on distance of central importance
 Wired media has exponential dependence
 Received power at d meters proportional to 10-kd
 Attenuation in dB = k d, where k is dB/meter
 Wireless media has logarithmic dependence
 Received power at d meters proportional to d-n
 Attenuation in dB = n log d, where n is path loss exponent;
n=2 in free space
 Signal level maintained for much longer distances
 Space communications possible
 Twisted Pair
Twisted pair
 Two insulated copper wires
30 26 gauge
arranged in a regular spiral
pattern to minimize 24 gauge
interference 24

Attenuation (dB/mi)
 Various thicknesses, e.g. 22 gauge
0.016 inch (24 gauge)
 Low cost 18
 Telephone subscriber loop 19 gauge
from customer to CO
 Old trunk plant connecting
12
telephone COs
 Intra-building telephone from
6
wiring closet to desktop
 In old installations, loading
coils added to improve quality f (kHz)
in 3 kHz band, but more 1
10 100 1000
attenuation at higher
frequencies Lower Higher
attenuation rate attenuation rate
analog telephone for DSL
 Twisted Pair Bit Rates
Table 3.5 Data rates of 24-gauge twisted pair
 Twisted pairs can provide
high bit rates at short
distances
Standard Data Rate Distance  Asymmetric Digital Subscriber
Loop (ADSL)
T-1 1.544 Mbps 18,000 feet, 5.5 km  High-speed Internet Access
 Lower 3 kHz for voice
DS2 6.312 Mbps 12,000 feet, 3.7 km
 Upper band for data
1/4 STS-1 12.960 4500 feet, 1.4 km  64 kbps outbound
Mbps  640 kbps inbound
1/2 STS-1 25.920 3000 feet, 0.9 km
 Much higher rates possible at
Mbps shorter distances
 Strategy for telephone
STS-1 51.840 1000 feet, 300 m companies is to bring fiber
Mbps close to home & then twisted
pair
 Higher-speed access + video
Ethernet LANs
 Category 3 unshielded twisted pair
(UTP): ordinary telephone wires
 Category 5 UTP: tighter twisting to
improve signal quality
     
 Shielded twisted pair (STP): to
minimize interference; costly
 10BASE-T Ethernet
 10 Mbps, Baseband, Twisted pair
 Two Cat3 pairs
 Manchester coding, 100 meters
 100BASE-T4 Fast Ethernet
 100 Mbps, Baseband, Twisted pair
 Four Cat3 pairs
 Three pairs for one direction at-a-time
 100/3 Mbps per pair;
 3B6T line code, 100 meters
 Cat5 & STP provide other options
 Coaxial Cable
Twisted pair
 Cylindrical braided outer 35
conductor surrounds
0.7/2.9 mm
insulated inner wire 30
conductor

Attenuation (dB/km)
 High interference immunity 25 1.2/4.4 mm
 Higher bandwidth than
twisted pair 20
 Hundreds of MHz
15
 Cable TV distribution
 Long distance telephone 10
transmission 2.6/9.5 mm
 Original Ethernet LAN 5
medium
0.1 1.0 10 100
f (MHz)
Cable Modem & TV Spectrum
Downstream Downstream
Upstream

42 MHz

500 MHz

MHz
750
550 MHz
5 MHz

54 MHz

 Cable TV network originally unidirectional

 Cable plant needs upgrade to bidirectional
 1 analog TV channel is 6 MHz, can support very high data rates
 Cable Modem: shared upstream & downstream
 5-42 MHz upstream into network; 2 MHz channels; 500 kbps to 4
Mbps
 >550 MHz downstream from network; 6 MHz channels; 36 Mbps
Cable Network Topology

Upstream fiber Fiber Fiber

Head Fiber Fiber
end node node
Downstream fiber
Coaxial
distribution
plant

= Bidirectional
split-band
amplifier
 Optical Fiber
Electrical Modulator Optical fiber Electrical
Receiver
signal signal

Optical
source

 Light sources (lasers, LEDs) generate pulses of light that are

transmitted on optical fiber
 Very long distances (>1000 km)
 Very high speeds (>40 Gbps/wavelength)
 Nearly error-free (BER of 10-15)
 Profound influence on network architecture
 Dominates long distance transmission
 Distance less of a cost factor in communications
 Plentiful bandwidth for new services
Transmission in Optical Fiber
Geometry of optical fiber

Light
Cladding Jacket
Core
Total Internal Reflection in optical fiber

c

 Very fine glass cylindrical core surrounded by concentric layer of glass

(cladding)
 Core has higher index of refraction than cladding
 Light rays incident at less than critical angle c is completely reflected back
into the core
Multimode & Single-mode Fiber
Multimode fiber: multiple rays follow different paths

Reflected path

Direct path

Single-mode fiber: only direct path propagates in fiber

 Multimode: Thicker core, shorter reach

 Rays on different paths interfere causing dispersion & limiting bit rate
 Single mode: Very thin core supports only one mode (path)
 More expensive lasers, but achieves very high speeds
Optical Fiber Properties
Advantages
 Very low attenuation
 Noise immunity
 Extremely high
bandwidth
 Security: Very difficult to
tap without breaking
 No corrosion
 More compact & lighter
than copper wire
Disadvantages
 New types of optical signal
impairments & dispersion
 Polarization dependence
 Wavelength dependence
 Limited bend radius
 If physical arc of cable too
high, light lost or won’t
reflect
 Will break
 Difficult to splice
 Mechanical vibration
becomes signal noise
Very Low Attenuation
100
Water Vapor Absorption
50 (removed in new fiber
designs)

10
5
Loss (dB/km)

1 Infrared absorption
0.5
Rayleigh scattering

0.1
0.05

0.01 Wavelength (m)

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

850 nm 1300 nm
Low-cost LEDs Metropolitan Area 1550 nm
LANs Networks Long Distance Networks
“Short Haul” “Long Haul
 Huge Available Bandwidth
 Optical range from λ1to 100
λ1Δλ contains bandwidth 50

v v
B = f1 – f2 = – 10
λ1 λ1 +
5

Loss (dB/km)
v Δλ / λ1 v Δλ
= ≈Δλ 2
λ1 1 + Δλ / λ1 1
λ1 0.5

 Example: λ1= 1450 nm 0.1

λ1Δλ =1650 nm:

2(108)m/s 200nm 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
B= ≈ 19 THz
(1450 nm)2
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
 Different wavelengths carry separate signals
 Multiplex into shared optical fiber
 Each wavelength like a separate circuit
 A single fiber can carry 160 wavelengths, 10 Gbps
per wavelength: 1.6 Tbps!

1 1

2 1  2
m
2.

optical
optical fiber
m optical
mux m
demux
 Coarse & Dense WDM
Coarse WDM
 Few wavelengths 4-8
with very wide spacing
 Low-cost, simple

Dense WDM
 Many tightly-packed
wavelengths
 ITU Grid: 0.8 nm
separation for 10Gbps
154

155

156
0

signals
0

 0.4 nm for 2.5 Gbps

Regenerators & Optical Amplifiers
 The maximum span of an optical signal is determined by the
available power & the attenuation:
 Ex. If 30 dB power available,
 then at 1550 nm, optical signal attenuates at 0.25 dB/km,
 so max span = 30 dB/0.25 km/dB = 120 km
 Optical amplifiers amplify optical signal (no equalization, no
regeneration)
 Impairments in optical amplification limit maximum number of
optical amplifiers in a path
 Optical signal must be regenerated when this limit is reached
 Requires optical-to-electrical (O-to-E) signal conversion,
equalization, detection and retransmission (E-to-O)
 Expensive
 Severe problem with WDM systems
 DWDM & Regeneration
 Single signal per fiber requires 1 regenerator per span

R R R R R R R R
Regenerator

 DWDM system carries many signals in one fiber

 At each span, a separate regenerator required per signal
 Very expensive

R R R R

… …
R R R R
… … … …
R R R R

R R R R
DWDM
multiplexer
Optical Amplifiers
 Optical amplifiers can amplify the composite DWDM signal
without demuxing or O-to-E conversion
 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs) boost DWDM signals
within 1530 to 1620 range
 Spans between regeneration points >1000 km
 Number of regenerators can be reduced dramatically
 Dramatic reduction in cost of long-distance communications

R R

… OA … OA …
R
OA … OA …
R

R R

Optical R R
amplifier
Radio Transmission
 Radio signals: antenna transmits sinusoidal signal
(“carrier”) that radiates in air/space
 Information embedded in carrier signal using
modulation, e.g. QAM
 Communications without tethering
 Cellular phones, satellite transmissions, Wireless LANs
 Multipath propagation causes fading
 Interference from other users
 Spectrum regulated by national & international
regulatory organizations
Radio Spectrum
Frequency (Hz)

104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012

FM radio and TV
Wireless cable
AM radio Cellular
and PCS
Satellite and terrestrial
microwave
LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
10 103 102 101 1 10-1 10-2 10-3
4
Wavelength (meters)

Omni-directional applications Point-to-Point applications

Examples
Cellular Phone
 Allocated spectrum
 First generation:
 800, 900 MHz
 Initially analog voice
 Second generation:
 1800-1900 MHz
 Digital voice, messaging
Wireless LAN
 Unlicenced ISM spectrum
 Industrial, Scientific, Medical
 902-928 MHz, 2.400-2.4835
GHz, 5.725-5.850 GHz
 IEEE 802.11 LAN standard
 11-54 Mbps
Point-to-Multipoint Systems
 Directional antennas at
microwave frequencies
 High-speed digital
communications between sites
 High-speed Internet Access Radio
backbone links for rural areas
Satellite Communications
 Geostationary satellite @ 36000
km above equator
 Relays microwave signals from
uplink frequency to downlink
frequency
 Long distance telephone
 Satellite TV broadcast
Different Bandwidth Criteria

(a) Half-power bandwidth.

(b) Equivalent rectangular
or noise equivalent
bandwidth.
(c) Null-to-null bandwidth.
(d) Fractional power
containment
bandwidth.
(e) Bounded power
spectral density.
(f) Absolute bandwidth.
Have a nice
day