UNIT SEVEN

AFRICA SINCE 1945

BY HENOK ZEWDU 1
 7.1 National Independence Movements
The root causes of some of the present problems faced by
African states can be traced back to the colonial era.
These problems are economic dependence, political
instability, border conflicts & the absence of economic
integration.
Thus the dev’t of African nationalism & anti-colonial
struggle were the effects of colonial exploitation &
maladministration.
Under colonialism Africans lost freedom & independence.
Colonialism hampered the economic progress of Africa &
kept it backed.
Racial discrimination, absence of political independence,
& poverty are the dismal legacies of colonialism.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 2
 End of World War II: The Turning Point
The African National Liberation mov’t every strengthened
after 1945 b/c of the economic exhaustion of Britain & France,
the emergence of the two super powers that condemned
colonialism & due to the change of world political system.
After WWII colonialism in Africa was eradicated with few
decades factors that facilitated the liberation struggle were:
 The political changes are spread of liberal thinking.
 Many Africans were able to observe European powers fighting
& paying great sacrifices to defend their sovereignty.
 some Asian states had won their independence already
stimulated the struggle in Africa.
Foreign educated Africans filled with the ideas of freedom,
nationalism, & democracy provided necessary leadership for
struggle for freedoms.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 3
 Cont.
Anti colonial struggle in Africa b/n 1918 & 1939 who laid down
the foundation for the post WWII independence mov’t Pan
Africanism also contributed to the struggle for African
independence, especially after 1945.
The struggle had d/t forms, in the length of time in winning
independence varied & strength of liberation organizations &
the quality of leadership differed.
The colonial powers used both diplomatic & military means to
weaken the liberation movements.
However, lastly Africans won their independence after 1945
through their struggle.
Italian Colonies – North & East Africa
 Formerly Libya was Italian colony from 1911 to 1941.
 The Allies forces expelled Fascists & Nazis from Libya in 1942 in
collaboration with a local resistance led by Sayyid Idris.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 4
 Cont.
 After the WWII, British & French forces stayed in Libya. USA
also set up a military base in this country.
 In 1952 Libya was freed based on the Soviet proposal to the UN
General Assembly king Indris took power but removed by
coup de’tat in 1969 by M. Gadafi.
 United kingdom of Libya was proclaimed on 1 Jan. 1952.
 British Somaliland stayed under British rule after WWII,
Italian Somaliland had also fallen under British, but later took
over by the UN & entrusted to Italy to 10 years period of
preparation for decolonization.
 In 1960 British & Italian Somaliland gained independence.
They united to form one state called Republic of Somali.
French Colonies
The liberation of French colonies in Africa began in the 1950s
by prolonged war & peacefully means.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 5
 Cont.
The liberation struggle in Morocco was led by the
Moroccan National Front with Sultan Mohammed V as
its head.
In 1953, the Riff & Atlas tribes revolted, & started armed
struggle.
After a negotiated settlement, Morocco were proclaimed
independent on 2 March 1952.
French & Spanish Morocco were re-united at
independence.
Tunisia also won its independence in 1956 under
leadership of Habib Bourgiba.
 In Algeria the French faced a protracted & bitter anti-
colonial struggle. In Algeria there had been a relatively
large number of European settlers.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 6
 Cont.
 These white settlers were determined to prevent the independence
of Algeria. They formed the “Secret Armed Organization” to hold
back Algerian independence.
 The Algerians nationalist organizations the “National Liberation
Front of Algeria” (FLNA), was led by Ahmed Ben Bella.
 The war in Algeria lasted from 1954 to 1962. the Algerian National
Liberation Front took the form of guerrilla war & scored progressive
successes over the French forces.
 Finally, on the bases of an agreement reached b/n the Algerian
freedom fighters & the French gov’t, a referendum was conducted.
 The people of Algeria overwhelmingly voted for independence.
 In consequences, Algeria was proclaimed independent on 1 July
1962.
 In 1958, France, under president Charles de Gaulle was prepared to
grant independence to her colonies in west & Equatorial Africa.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 7
 Cont.
 Only Guinea (Conakry) used this opportunity.
 Guinea voted Yes to independence in the referendum conducted the same
year in all French African colonies.
 Under the Democratic Party of Guinea, led by Sekou Toure, Guinea
became independent in 1958.
 Other French colonies remained under French rule until 1960s. In 1960 a
large number of African countries, achieved independence.
 This led to the designation of the year 1960 as the Year of African
Independence.
The French colonies that became independent during that year were:
Cameroon, Togo (both under UN trusteeship), Madagascar (now Malagasy
Republic), Dahomey (Benin), Niger, Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), Ivory
Coast (Cote d’Ivoire), Chad, Ubangi Shari (Central Africa Republic), Congo
(Brazzaville), Gabon, Senegal, French Sudan (Mali) and Mauritania.
The former French Somaliland, became independent in 1977 renamed
French Territory of Afars & Issas. This is now known as Djibouti. The
Comoro Islands became independent in 1975.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 8
 British Colonies-West, East & Southern Africa
The struggle for independence in white settled colonies was
relatively bitter & took more years.
In Gold Coast, the struggle was at first led by an organization called
the United Gold Coast Convention. However, in 1949, Kwame
Nkrumah left the Gold Coast Convention & organized the
Convention People’s Party.
Nkrmah assumed the leadership in the struggle for independence.
The Gold Coast became independent in 1957, & adopted the
historic name of Ghana.
Nigeria became independent in 1960. Sierra Leone & Gambia in
1961 & 1970 respectively.
Egypt had gained its independence in 1922, but Britain continued
to station her troops up to 1956.
In 1952 a group of young army officers led by Colonel Gamal Abdul
Nasser overthrew the conservative king Faruk & seized power.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 9
 Cont.
Nasser negotiated with the British for the withdrawal of
British troops from the Suez canal area.
When British forces evacuated the canal zone Egypt became
fully independent in 1956.
 Anglo-Egyptian rule over the Sudan, (the Condominium),
came to an end through the Anglo-Egyptian Agreement of 12
February 1953.
 The agreement accepted the independence of Sudan. After
three years, in 1956, Sudan became independent.
 In East Africa, the British trust territory of Tanganyika won
its independence in 1961 under the Tanganyika Africa
National Union led by Mwalimu Julius Nyerere.
 Zanzibar also became independent in 1963. In 1964 these
two independent states formed a federation called Tanzania.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 10
 Cont.
Kenya’s road to independence had its own ups & downs.
Kenyans organized a peasant nationalist mov’t known as the
Mau Mau. The Mau Mau harassed white settlers in the country.
The identity of the members of the mov’t was secret. The Mau
Mau Mov’t was active b/n 1952 & 1955.
The mov’t was suppressed & thousands of Africans were
imprisoned by the British. In 1960 Jomo Kenyatta organized
the Kenya African National Union (KANU).
Kenya won independence in 1963 & Kenyata became its first
president.
South Rhodesia’s road to independence had also its own
challenge.
In 1965 the racist white settlers under the leadership of Iyan
Smith declared what was called the Unilateral Declaration of
Independence (UDI).

BY HENOK ZEWDU 11
 Cont.
Long & better war was fought by the Zimbabwe African National
Union (ZANU) & the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) led
by Robert Mugabe & Joshua Nkomo, respectively. This struggle
brought the white minority rule to an end.
A majority rule to was established in April 1980. Robert Mugabe
became the first Prime Minister & South Rhodesia adopted the name
Zimbabwe (after historic Zimbabwe).
An organized struggle was conducted in North Rhodesia by the
United National Independence Party, under the leadership of
Kenneth Kaunda.
This struggle led to North Rhodesia independence in 1964. The country
adopted the new name of Zambia after River Zambezi.
Nyasaland became independent in 1964 as Malawi with Hastings
Kamuzu Banda as its president.
In 1966, Basutoland (now Lesotho) & Bechuanaland (renamed
Botswana) became independent. The island colonies of Mauritius &
Seycheles became independent in 1968 & 1976, respectively.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 12
 Belgian Colonies – Central Africa
National Independence Parties emerged in Belgian Congo was the
Congolese National Mov’t. This party was led by Patrice Lumumba.
Lumumba had developed anti-imperialist & Pan-African attitudes.
Following popular revolts in the Congo 1959, Belgium was forced to
recognize the independence of the Congo which was officially declared in
1960.
Independent Democratic Republic of Congo emerged with Joseph
Kasavubu as President & Patrice Lumumba as P.M.
The end of colonial rule followed by civil war. The mineral rich provinces of
Katanga & Kasai broke away under the leadership of Moise Tshombe &
Kalonji.
Belgian troops were sent to protect the Belgian & European mining interests
in the region. Lumumba, appointed to the UN. Lumumba, who had socialist
inclinations, was dismissed from office by President Kasavubu on 5
September 1960.
Early in 1961, Lumumba was captured & fell into the hand of Katangese
troops & was killed. The UN troops which included forces from Ethiopia,
were sent to normalize the situation.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 13
 Cont.
In this tense situation the UN Secretary General Dag
Hammarskjold died in a plane crash while trying to mediate
the Congo crisis. His successor U Thant continued the work
for the reunification of the Congo.
Katangese forces were defeated by the UN army in 1963. UN
troops finally withdrew, with the Congo re-united.
In June 1964 Kasavubu appointed Tshombe as PM. Tshombe
became fierce & brutal in dealing with local matters.
Kasavubu sacked him in 1965.
In 1965 the army under General Joseph (Sese Seko)
Mobutu took over political power. Tshombe went into exile
& was condemned to death in his absence.
Mobutu put down Katangese resistance, cleared his country
of white mercenaries & generally restored order. Mobutu was
confirmed as the President of the Congo in 1970.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 14
 Cont.
The state adopted a new name of Zaire, after the former name of the
River Congo. However, Mobutu's dictatorial rule & mismanagement
led the country to increasing impoverishment.
The Belgian mandate territories of Rwanda & Burundi became
independent by the decision of the UN in 1962. At independence,
Rwanda became a republic. Burundi was made a kingdom until it,
too, became a republic as of November 1966.
The Portuguese Colonial Empire
The Portuguese were determined to continue their colonial rule in
their African colonies of Mozambique, Angola, Guinean-Bissau &
Cape Verde. In 1974 the “Revolutionary Front for the Libration of
Mozambique” (FRELIMO), won independence for Mozambique in
1975.
The National Union for Total Independence in Angola, (UNITA), &
the Popular Mov’t for the Liberation of Angola, (MPLA) both in
harmony & conflict with each other, won independence for Angola in
1975.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 15
 Cont.
The African Independence Party of Guinea & Cape Verde (PAIGC)
led the two small colonies of Portugal to independence in the same
year. Sao Tome & Principe also became independent in 1975.
Spanish & South African Controlled Territories
 By the Versailles Peace Treaty, at the end of WWI, South West
Africa was taken away from Germany & put under the Republic of
South African mandatory rule. After the WWII, the responsibility of
looking after the mandatory territories was transferred to the UNs,
(UN Trust Territories).
 In such a way, Spanish Guinea gained independence in 1968 & was
renamed Equatorial Guinea. But, South Africa entered into a long
& bitter the “South-West African People’s Organization”
(SWAPO).
 International diplomatic pressures were also put on South Africa .
Finally South-West Africa won its independence in 1990. it was
renamed Namibia.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 16
 Apartheid in South Africa
 Two years after South Africa was freed from British rule n 1910,
the African National Congress (ANC) was formed in 1912,
aimed at struggling for the right of the black population.
Later, the ANC crystallized its demands into a call for “One
man One vote”.
 In 1948, a general election brought the Afrikaner National
Party to power. It was party made up of extreme racist groups.
 It promoted a policy of discrimination which came to be
known as Apartheid. It means separate dev’t of the races,&
white domination of the majority blacks by the minority
whites. Apartheid denied all political rights to blacks & other
non white. 87% of all land in S.A was reserved to white.
 It passed a number of laws that deprived Africans of their
political right & human rights & imposed rigid segregation in
sport, recreational areas, hospitals, buses.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 17
 Cont.
Wide spread demonstrations & riots were held many times. In 1952 the
ANC, led by Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo, Nelson Mandela & Walter Sisulu
waged a campaign of passive resistance to the various discriminatory rules.
On 21 March 1960, police fired on a peaceful & unarmed demonstrators at
Sharpeville. 72 people were killed & some 186 including women & children
were wounded.
The racist gov’t arrested the opposition leaders including Nelson Mandela
& banned all political organizations as illegal. Mandela was in jail at
Robben island until he was released in 1990.
The struggle of the ANC finally became successful. Apartheid was abolished
& “One man, One vote” was introduced in South Africa.
Nelson Mandela won election & held office as the first democratically
elected president of the R.S.A in April 1994. he was able to reconcile blacks
& whites peoples.
In 1999, he left the presidency for the next democratically elected president
who happened to be his second-in-command in the ANC.
Mandela has left a rich legacy of democratic gov‘t in South Africa.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 18
 7.2 Pan-Africanism
The origin of the idea of Pan Africanism was from outside
Africa, in the new world. Its emergence was among the
descendents of the African slaves in America, who left that they
had been made homeless.
The term Pan Africanism express two main ideas:-
I. It is an expression of a desire for African unity.
II. It expresses a sense of unity among all black peoples.
 This expression assumes a common brotherhood of all
peoples of Africa, North America & the West Indies.
 In its first from Pan African was in fact “Pan Black” or “Pan-
Negro” Movement which took shape outside Africa.
1. The First Pan-African Congress:- was held in London in 1900.
one of the actions of this congress was to protest to Britain’s
Queen Victoria against racist rule in South Africa & Rhodesia.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 19
 Cont.
The conference was chaired by trained (West Indies) lawyer,
H. Sylvester Williams. The participants of the conference came
mainly from America & West Indies. Most of them were
student in England.
One of them was Dr. William E. Burghardt Du Bois, a noted
African-American Scholar & writer, who became subsequently
an organizer & preacher of Pan-Africanism.
2. The Second Pan-African Congress:- was held in Paris in
1919. It coincided with the Versailles peace conference of 1919.
3. The Third Pan-African Congress:- was held in 1921 in two
sessions; the first in London & the Second in Brussels.
The conference emphasized the importance of “inter-racism”
that is racial equality & justice.
The key message of the conference was “the habit of
democracy must be made to encircle the world”.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 20
 Cont.
4. The Forth Pan-African Congress:- was held in 1923 in London
& Lisbon.
It issued a manifesto to demanding “in fine we ask all the
world that black folk be treat as men. We can see no other
road to peace & progress”.
5. The Fifth Pan-African Congress:- was held in New York, in
1927. It was directly led by Du Bois. It confirmed the decisions
& orientations adopted at the private congresses. But, during
the congress, the Pan-African idea was criticized by the
communists as petty bourgeois black nationalism.
After the fifth conference, there was a gap to hold the
conference for almost 20 years. This period was marked by
bitter conflict b/n Du Bois & the Jamaican Marcus Garvey.
The main issue of conflict b/n them was the future of black
peoples outside Africa.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 21
 Cont.
Du Bois:- maintained that blacks outside Africa should fight to
establish their rights in the countries they live in.
Marcus Garvey:- however, insisted the only future for blacks in
America & West Indies lay in a return to Africa. As a result of this,
Garvey organized a “Back to Africa” Mov’t.
Their rivalry enabled many Africans, like Dr. Nnamdi Azikwe of
Nigeria & Dr. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, who were in Europe
& America at the time to gain new ideas which they transplanted
to Africa.
6. The Six Pan-African congress:- held in Manchester in 1945. The
“Pan-Black” idea reached its full dev’t during this congress.
 this congress was attended by Dou Bois, Kwame Nkrumah of
Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, Nnamdi Azihwe of Nigeria & the
well known S. African writer, Peter Abraham. This historic
congress adopted a resolution demanding independence for
Africans & an end to colonialism.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 22
The First Conference of Independent African States
It was held in Accra, Ghana, in April 1958. in December, the Second
Conference was held in the same city.
Ethiopia, Ghana, United Arab Republic (Egypt), Guinea, Liberia,
Libya, Morocco & Tunisia attended the conference. Both conferences
called for the independence of the continent from colonialism.
In the meantime, regional groupings began to emerge in Africa;
namely, the Brazzaville group, Casablanca group & Monrovia group.
A. The Brazzaville Group:- was composed of ex-French colonies.
Originally, the group was organized by France in 1944 & further
strengthened in 1958. After independence also their connection
with France continued.
B. The Casablanca Group:- its members criticized neo-colonialism
which made African states economically dependent on their
former colonial masters. Therefore, the members supported the
proposal of Kwame Nkrumah for “United States of Africa”.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 23
 Cont.
With this common ground & vision, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Egypt &
Morocco held a conference in the Moroccan town of Casablanca in
1961. They came to be known as the Casablanca group.
C. The Monrovia Group:- its members shared many views in
common.
 All members believed that their own internal problems must be
solved first before the establishment of an inter-state political
union.
 The group also believed in the necessity for coordinated effort
among African states for economic developments.
 It consisted a number of independent African states including
Liberia & Ethiopia. later, almost all of the Brazzaville group
members joined this group.
 Having this kind of differences, African states came together at
Addis Ababa & established the Organization of African Unity
(OAU) in May 1963.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 24
 7.3 The Formation of OAU
The Organization of Africa Unity (OAU) was established at Addis
Ababa in 25 May 1963.
The charter of the organization was signed by 31 independent
African states. The charter had 33 articles, it was based on the
principle of the UNs & worked in cooperation with its membership.
It was made open for every independent African state.
The long years of the Pan-African mov’t led to the establishment of
the OAU.
Addis Ababa provided the office for the General Secretariat which
runs the day to day activities of the OAU. The aims
of OAU were:-
I. The promotion of the unity & solidarity of African states.
II. The elimination of colonialism in Africa.
III. The retaining of existing boundaries.
IV. Neutrality in the Cold War.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 25
 Cont.
The principal organs of the OAU include:
The Assembly of Heads of States & Governments:- this is the supreme
organ & meets ones a year.
The Council of Ministers:- it consists of Foreign Ministers & meets
twice a year or when required.
The General Secretariat:- It has an Administrative Secretary-General
appointed by the Assembly.
The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation & Arbitration
Other specialized Commissions.
7.4 Problems of Independent African States & the OAU
Separatists mov’ts & inter ethnic tensions. Eg., the Igbos of Nigeria
rebelled to set up Biafra independent gov’t from May 1967 to 1970.
Political instability.
Most of the newly independent African countries consisted of people
who belong to the same ethnic group & existed in different countries.
Frequent border conflicts.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 26
 Cont.

Economic & social backwardness.

Single party rule, injustice & civil war.
Military coups. b/n 1958 & 1969, in 20 out of the 38
independent African states political power been taken over
by military regimes.
Economic dependency on capitalist countries.
Unemployment.
Success of the OAU
Liberation from colonialism.
Intervened in many regional conflicts
Struggled against Apartheid in South Africa.
It attempt to mediate in all these conflicts, & some
successes. Eg. Somalia & Ethiopia, Morocco & Nigeria,
Rwanda & the Great Lakes conflicts.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 27
 Cont.
Cooperation among states for economic dev’t, regional
organization have been set up. But to over come the
problem of the OAU & to speeded up African political &
economic integration the African Union was established in
2004.
It is not fundamentally d/t from the OAU.
It is a natural dev’t of OAU to a higher level of integration
which had four solid bases: The establishment of an AU.
The establishment of an All-African Parliament.
Pan-African court of Justice.
The African Development Fund &
African Investment Fund.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 28
 UNIT EIGHT
ETHIOPIA FROM 1941 TO 1991
8.1 Consolidation of Autocracy
Britain continued to dominate the Ethiopian state. Great pressure on
the Ethiopian state.
Emperor Haile Sellasie endeavored to lay the foundation for the
consolidation of the restored autocracy.
The Emperor took several measures aimed at improving the political,
economic, social & diplomatic situation that ultimately enabled him to
remain an absolutist monarch up to 1974.
First, the Emperor built a bureaucracy that served his interests.
The ministerial gov’t was reinstated in 1943.
Eleven ministries & the office of the prime Minister were set up. In
theory, the Ministers were given power to draft & implement laws.
The expansion of Education in the country was intended to produce
the necessary educated manpower for the expanding modern
bureaucracy.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 29
The Emperor established an advisory body known as Crown Council,
composed of the hereditary nobility.
The changing political realities & international situation of the post-war
period & the Federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia in 1952 necessitated
changes in the existing constitution.
In 1955, Haile Sellasie promulgated a new constitution, revising the 1931
constitution.
The revised constitution of 1955 too had primarily aimed at consolidating
autocracy.
The major concern & content of the constitution was the issue of
imperial succession.
It introduced universal adult suffrage & allowed an elected Chamber of
Deputies. The elected members were generally from the nobility.
The emperor further consolidated his autocratic rule through
reorganizing the army.
The Imperial Body Guard was reestablished with Swedish assistance in
1942.
The Police Force was set up in 1942 on the British model.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 30
 The Army, initially trained by the British, & later by the Americans,
became a major pillar of state power.
 The Army, Imperial Body Guard & the Police Force were used to put
down any opposition to the State.
Economic Developments
 Agriculture has continued to be the dominant economic activity in
Ethiopia. This economic sector has been used both for subsistence &
export.
 The question of land & its ownership was to become a matter of great
concern to the restored monarchy.
 After Ethiopian’s liberation, a process of land privatization was pursued
at an increasing scale.
 The post-1941 Ethiopian economy grew at a very slow rate. Ethiopia was
economically dependent & its debts increased steadily.
 The British Military Mission to Ethiopia withdrew in 1950.
 In 1953, a Treaty was signed b/n Ethiopia & the USA. This treaty signed in
the same year allowed the US to use the KAGNEW communications
station in Asmara.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 31
 In return, the USA agreed to give military assistance to Ethiopia.
To implement this military aid program, a body called Military
Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) was set up in the same year.
 The Americans were also improving & extending the
communication sector. The Ethiopian Air Lines had already been
established in 1945 by the help of the Americans.
 The Imperial Highway Authority was established in 1951.
 The Ethiopian education system was shaped along American
system of education. The Peace Corps Program of the 1960s was
part of this American assistance.
 The American influence in Ethiopia continued in various spheres
until the 1974 revolution.
8.2 Crisis of Autocracy & Oppositions to the Imperial Rule
Internal Plots & the 1960 Coup de’tat
 There had been various oppositions against the Haile Selassie’s
rule in the post-liberation period.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 32
 The 1960 coup d’etat was however an open revolt, causing crucial
consequences.
 The coup was led by Brigadier General Mengistu & his brother
Germame Neway.
 Mengistu Neway was the commander of the Imperial Bodyguard.
Germame was USA educated & he served as an administrator of
Wolayta & Jijiga upon his return.
 On 14 December 1960, the coup markers proclaimed the establishment of
a new government.
 The Crown Prince Asfaw Wosen was made head of state, as a salaried
constitutional monarch.
 Ras Imiru Haile Sellassie, selected for his liberal attitudes, was to be the
Prime Minister of the new government.
 After few days exchange of fire & day-light shoot outs in the capital Addis
Ababa, the coup failed. Its organizers were forced to feel to save their lives.
 General Tsige Debu, Chief of the Police Force & the formidable ally of
the coup leaders, was killed in battle. Mrngistu was wounded outside
Addis Aaba & Germame was killed.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 33
 Mengistu was later tried sentenced to death & was hanged in
Addis Ababa in March 1961.
 The coup failed because it lacked proper organization.
The Ethiopian Students’ Movement
The Ethiopian student movement began following the
expansion of the secondary & higher level education in the post
– liberation Ethiopia.
The student movement began in the 1950’s, when university
students started to demand improvement in education
facilitated & survivals. First it was began the University collage
of Addis Ababa.
Students came out into the streets with the slogan “Land to the
Tiller”. They called for civil rights & liberties, & protested
against economic, religious & ethnic inequalities.
In the years b/n 1965 & 1974 students raised many national &
international issues affecting their country & peoples.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 34
 Peasant Rebellions in Gojjam & Bale
The condition of the Ethiopian peasantry was, extremely
miserable in the post-liberation decades. Factors attributed to the
problems were:
 Increasing land tax, the process of privatization & land sale.
 The expansion of commercial farms which resulted in eviction of
peasants.
In Gojjam peasant rebellion broke out in 1968. the immediate
cause of the rebellion was the introduction of a new agricultural
income tax.
The rebellion was first started in the districts of Mota & Dega
Damot. The rebellion also spread to other districts of Gojjam.
The fighting reached its peak in April 1968.
At the end of the fighting, the emperor visited Gojjam, removed
unpopular gov’t officials, postponed the new tax, & exempted
peasants from back-payment of taxes for the years 1950 to 1968.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 35
The peasant rebellion of Bale had its roots in the very system of
feudal exploitation & corrupt-administration. But the
oppression & economic sufferings of the peasants of Bale were
worse than that of Gojjam.
As it was common practice in other provinces of southern
Ethiopia, land alienation, religious & ethnic domination of
the settler ruling class & inhumane & corrupt administration
worsened the life of peasants in Bale.
The rebellion in Bale began in the frontier district of Elkere in
1963. it started with the refusal of peasants to pay government
taxes & to sell grains at market.
By 1964 the peasant rebellion had spread to other districts of Bale
like Wabe, Dello & Genale.
The rebellion became more militant & very well organized under
the leadership of commander Waqo Gutu. He succeeded in
getting arms & military training for his followers from Somalia.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 36
Goba town, the capital of Bale, was attacked twice by the
rebellion. Finally, the rebellion was crushed by an army sent
from the center.
The Ethiopia gov't introduced martial law, & set up military
administration over Bale.
 Suspects were detained. The right of mov't of people restricted.
Rebel peasants were disarmed. Ring leaders were persuaded to
surrender through promises of rewards. The rebellion came to
an end in March 1970.
 The gov’t appointed an Oromo General Jagema Kello as
governor of Bale.
 The gov't taxes for up to year 1970 were cancelled.
 Protests of peasant also arose in d/t provinces of the country
such as in Wollo, Arsi & Shoa though these lacked the
organization & militancy of the above mentioned cases of Bale
& Gojjam.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 37
 The Outbreak of Famines
In the year from 1958-1974, the worst famine occurred in Ethiopia.
The famine had several causes, such as:-
 The exploitative & oppressive feudal system. Scarcity of resources,
Deforestation & soil erosion. Backward system of production; Over
population. Peasants paid about ¾ of their produce to the state & land
lords. Surplus appropriation & Droughts were the major causes for the
famine.
The strongest famine took place in Tigrai from 1958 - 1959; Wag-
Lasta from 1965 to 1966 & Wollo from 1972 to 1973.
The famine created starvation that forced the peasants to filthier birth
place. But, the feudal gov't tried its best to hide the famines.
The famine was exposed to the international community in 1974 by
the British documentary film, reported by Jonathan Dimbilbl. This
exposed the gov'ts cruelty & irresponsibility.
This event became one more cause to further strengthen opposition
against the government.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 38
 The Eritrean problem
After the liberation of Ethiopia from Italian occupation in 1941,
Britain ruled over two regions of Ethiopia, Ogaden & Eritrea.
The gov't of Britain wanted to split Ogadin & Eritrea from
Ethiopia. The plan of Britain was to annex the Ogaden region
with the British Somaliland & the lowland of Eritrea with
her colony of Sudan.
In response to the British mov't, the Emperor of Ethiopia
insisted on its right to the possession of both Eritrea & Ogaden.
The issue, finally, presented to the allied powers conference of
the 1945 in London. The conference rejected the demand of
Ethiopia. However, following the withdrawal of the British from
Ogaden in 1948, Ogaden was restored to Ethiopia in 1954.
following Italy's withdrawal from Eritrea in 1941, two major
issues were raised, such as:-
a) Ethiopians’ claim over the restoration of Eritrea to Ethiopia.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 39
b) The emergence of two local political groups in Eritrea.
 These 2 political groups had d/t ideas & objectives; that is
I. The Unionist Party:- supported union with Ethiopia.
II. The Muslim League-demanded the independence of Eritrea.
 In 1948, the issue of Eritrea was taken to the UN by Britain,
France, USSR & USA.
 The UN, following this, appointed a commission of 5 countries,
consisting of Burma, Norway, Guatemala, Pakistan & South
Africa to investigate the wills of Eritrean people.
 The commission member states expressed their own opinion
towards the solution of Ethio-Eritrean problem. Accordingly,
a) Pakistan & Guatemala recommended independence to
Eritrea.
b) South Africa & Burma recommended federation of Eritrea
with Ethiopia and
c) Norway supported the union of Eritrea with Ethiopia.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 40
 The federal arrangement gave Eritrea same degree of autonomy.
 Foreign affairs, defense, finance, commerce & ports came
under the authority of the Ethiopian gov't whereas Eritrean
internal affairs were left to its own assembly.
 However, the gov't of Haile Sellassie always stood against the
federal system & did its best to change the federation to union. It
wanted to use the union as a means of resolving the Ethio-Eritrean
trouble.
 The parliament of Eritrea was forced to vote for union on
December 14, 1962. due to this, the assembly dissolved itself &
Eritrea was united with Ethiopia.
 After the union of Eritrea with Ethiopia, the idea of the
secessionists gained new ground among the people to separate
Eritrea from Ethiopia & create an independent state of Eritrea.
 In 1961, armed struggle of Eritrean people which was headed by
Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) of Jabaha was created. From
the beginning, the ELF was the Muslim dominated party.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 41
Idris Awate, an Eritrean exile in the Middle East, was the first
leader of the Eritrean separatist group.
From its beginning, the ELF gained help from the Muslim world.
It fought several battles against the imperial regime during the
1960s. However, it failed to achieve its goal due to lack of unity
among the opposition groups.
The differences in religion, regional differences, power rivalry, d/t
factions were the major problems of the ELF. That is why in 1972
the EPLF or Shabya was created.
Shabya & Jabaha fought each other for supremacy in Eritrea.
The Ethiopian ruling class was unable to solve the Eritrean
problem during the reign of Haile Sellassie & the Derg regime.
It was this why the devastating war was fought for 30 years (1961-
1991).
Finally, Shabya won its opponent, Jabaha & set up independent
Eritrea in 1991.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 42
 8.3 The Popular Revolution of 1974 and its Aftermath
Opposition to the imperial regime reached its peak in February 1974.
The first serious act along the road to the revolution came from the
army. Already in January 1974, the army stationed at Negele
Borrana mutinied in protest against poor living conditions.
At Negele Borana, soldiers detained high ranking military
officials who went there for mediation. Armed forces elsewhere
began to demand salary increases & improvement of the living
condition.
Ethiopians workers carried out series of strikes in d/t gov't & private
enterprises. Workers protested against the long working hours,
little pay, poor working conditions & corrupt management.
The earliest working class mov'ts had appeared among workers of
the Rialway, the Wonji Sugar Factory, & the Akaki Textile
Factory, to mention just a few.
In 1962, workers established a national organization known as the
Confederation of Ethiopian Labour Unions (CELU).
BY HENOK ZEWDU 43
Trade unions began demanding salary increases, pensions, annual
leave, insurance, medical care, reduction of working hours, etc.
Ethiopian teachers, (under the Ethiopian Teacher Association) rose
against the exploitative system of the sate in general, & the newly
introduced educational reform program known as Education Sector
Review of 1971-1972 in particular.
Teachers criticized the program as unfair towards the poor.
In the middle of February 1974, teachers supported by student &
peasants demanded reforms.
In the same month, the state also faced a strike by taxi drivers in the
capital.
Muslim of the capital set out for demonstration & demanded &
religious equality, separation of church & state & official
observance of Muslim holidays.
Finally, the mutiny of d/t divisions of the Army & the Air Force
brought a serious challenge to the state since the beginning of 1974. This
time, soldiers did not only demand salary increases, but also asked
for political & economic reforms.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 44
On 28 June 1974 the representatives of the various units
established the Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, the
Police & the Territorial Army. This body came to be known as the
Derg.
Members of this national committee consisted of solders of the
lowest rank, non-commissioned officers (NCOs) & low ranking
officers. High ranking officers were excluded. They were believed
to be supporters of the regime.
On 28 February, 1974 Prime Minister Aklilu Habtewold resigned
& was replaced by Endalkachew Mekonnen. The new cabinet,
formed by lij Endalkachew, was unable to stop the national crisis.
The Derg began to exercise power & take actions. High ranking
officials of the imperial regime, including Prime Minister
Endalkachew were detained. (Aklilu had already been
imprisoned).
Lij Mikael Imiru became Prime Minister. On 12 September ,
1974 Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed & detained.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 45
Thus, the 44 year of Haile Selassie rule & the Solomonic
Dynasty came to an end. The Derg (Committee) was composed
of 120 men. It proclaimed itself the Provisional Military
Administrative Council (PMAC), assumed supreme political
power.
This event marked the beginning of dictatorial military rule in
Ethiopia.
8.4 The Military Rule (1974-1991)
After he was deposed, the Emperor was put to jail & died in prison
months later.
A new cabinet had been formed by Lij Endalkachew Mekonnen,
who was later replaced as a Prime Minister by Michael Imiru,
following the depose of the Emperor.
Both the Cabinet & the Derg run the gov't affairs.
After the formation of PMAC the Derg took over the state power
under the Chairmanship of Lieutenant General Aman Mikael
Andom.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 46
Oppositions to the military gov't were ruthlessly suppressed.
Aman Mikael Andom himself was killed in November 1974. In
the same month, without trial, the Derg executed leading
officials of the imperial regime. This action multiplied its
enemies both at home & abroad.
General Teferi Benti took the position of Aman, but he was
manipulated by other officials like Mengistu Haile Mariam, a
graduate of Holeta Military Academy & Atnafu Abate, a leading
figure in the PMAC.
After the announcement of its formation, the PMAC promised to
give up power to a new gov't by adopting a constitution ratified
by a popularly elected assembly. However, it did not fix a precise
date or time table for such a transition of power.
Students, teachers, workers & other civil servants as well as
sections of the army firmly opposed the military junta.
Popular strikes & demonstrations demanded the formation of a
provisional peoples government.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 47
Though it was unwilling to hand over power to a civilian gov't, the
Derg took some measures or reforms. These included:-
i. A programme known as the Dev't through Cooperation Campaign
was launched in December 1974.
 The campaign aimed at implementing a literacy program &
implement a subsequent proclamation of rural land reform.
 It involved high school & university teachers & students.
ii. In 1975, the military regime nationalized industries, banks &
insurance companies that had formerly been privately owned.
iii. A proclamation was issued on nationalization of rural land, its
redistribution to the landless peasants, in March, 1975.
 It abolished tenancy. The proclamation put an end to landlordism.
 It was a radical land reform proclamation that abolished all forms
of private land ownership of rural land.
 Peasant association were formed at “kebele” level to implement
rural land distribution & administration.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 48
iv. A gov't controlled enterprise known as Agricultural Marketing
Corporation (Ersha Sebil Gebeya Dirijit) was established.
Peasants were forced to sell their produce to the Corporation with a
fixed price by the corporation. This measure embittered the
peasants.
v. Urban land & extra houses were nationalized on 26 July, 1975.
 The proclamation established the urban dwellers’ associations,
the kebeles. These associations were also used by the Derg to
control & eliminate opposition forces in the towns.
 Most of the measures taken by the Derg’s military dictatorship
faced several oppositions.
 One of the serious challenges came from one of the leftist
underground political organizations, the Ethiopian Peoples
Revolutionary Party (EPRP). This opposition force had been
active mainly among the urban people.
 The EPRP carried out armed struggle in the countryside & urban
centers.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 49
 Supporters & functionaries of the Derg became targets. The military
regime also carried out systematic & ruthless elimination of such
opposition forces.
 The bloody campaign of physical elimination by the Derg was known
as Red Terror.
 Suspected & supports of the Ethiopian peoples Revolutionary
Democratic Party (EPRP)
 The Tigrai people's Liberation Front (TPLF)
 The Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF)
 The Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) & other become prime targets of
the Red Terror.
 In April 1976, the military regime had also established the Provisional
Office for Mass Organization & Affairs (POMOA).
 It was masterminded & staffed mainly by members of the All-
Ethiopia Socialist Movement (Meison).
 In April 1976 the National Democratic Revolution Program of Ethiopia
came to substitute the former principle of “Ethiopian Socialism”.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 50
 Several Marxist-Leninist Organizations emerged which were later to
form a common platform, called the Union of Marxist-Leninist
Organizations, (Emaledih)
 The PMAC officially established the Commission for Organizing the
party of the Working People of Ethiopia (COPWE) in December 1979.
 The Workers Party of Ethiopia (WPE) came in to being.
 With the adoption of a Socialist Constitution, the Peoples Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) was set up in 1987.
Mengistu himself assumed all key posts. He was the head of the WPE,
the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces & the President of
the PDRF.
 In the north west the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU) waged
armed struggle against the military regime.
 The Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF), also scored victories in
the north in those years.
 The Tigrai Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) had already started an
armed struggle.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 51
 The Somali Republic‘s Invasion of Ethiopia & the
Intervention of USSR
 Ethiopia became the target of Somali invasion since June 1977.
Somalia led by Siad Barre.
 Armed with Soviet weapons & trained by Soviet military
experts, the Somali forces penetrated into Ethiopia across the
ill defended Ogaden area & even threatened Dire Dawa &
Harar.
 In a short period of time, nearly 300,000 militias were recruited
among from workers & peasants to defend the territorial
integrity of Ethiopia.
 In the meantime, the USSR shifted its side to Ethiopia.
Thereafter, the Soviet, Cuban & South Yemen supported the
Derg in the war against the Somali.
 Ethiopia finally joined the communist bloc spear-headed by
the Soviet Union.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 52
Decline & Fall of the Military Regime
There were several internal & external factors that precipitated the
decline & fall of the military regime.
The famine of 1984/85, that was preceded by drought & crop failure,
forced military gov't to introduce a program of forced mass
resettlement & later that of forced villagization.
The resettlement program failed due to several factors. No prior
preparations were made. The good will of the people was not obtained.
Villagization also faced similar opposition.
The leaders of several army units to attempt to stage a coup in May
1989 against Mengistu’s regime.
With these weaknesses, the army had to face the coordinated military
challenges of the EPLF & TPLF.
The TPLF, popularly called the Wayane mov't since 1970's, scored
several victories on the Derg.
In 1989 the TPLF gained a decisive victory at the battle of Shire.
The EPLF took control of the port of Massawa in 1990.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 53
The TPLF was determined to liberate the whole of Ethiopia from the
military regime. To this end, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary
Democratic Front (EPRDF) was formed.
This Front was made up of the TPLF, the Ethiopian Peoples’
Democratc Movement (EPDM), the Oromo People's Democratic
Organization (OPDO) & the Ethiopian Democratic Officers'
Revolutionary Mov't (EDORM).
In addition, the international politics also contributed to the downfall
of the Derg. It already changed the supporter of the Derg, the USSR led
by Mikhail Gorbacoev who introduced political & economic reforms
known as Perestroika (restructuring) & Glasnost that discredited
socialist ideology & practice.
Various liberation fronts such as the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF),
the Oromo Islamic Front, the Afar Liberation Front, Benishangul
Liberation Front, & the Gambela Liberation Front also fought for
self-determination.
The EPLF controlled the Eritrean capital of Asmara on May 21, 1991 &
on May 24, 1991 Assab.

BY HENOK ZEWDU 54
EPRDF forces made their advance in to Addis Ababa from d/t
direction & controlled it on 28 May 1991.
One week earlier Mengistu secretly fled to Nairobi, Kenya & then
Harare, Zimbabwe.
The EPRDF undertook the task of maintaining peace & stability &
establishing a new political order.
From Military Dictatorship to A Federal Arrangement
In July, a Transitional Gov't of Ethiopia (TGA) was set up as a
result of the conference held in Addis Ababa, from 1-5 July, 1991.
It was attended by d/t political forces, national liberation
mov'ts, religious institutions & other participants.
The prime-objective was to draw a transitional period charter that
would serve as the supreme law of the country. This charter had
outlined basic principles regarding people's democratic rights,
foreign policy of the country, the structure & composition of the
transitional gov't. the gov'ts program & the legality of the charter
fixed the number of council of representatives of 87.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 55
The Transitional Gov‘was organized to led the country for two years.
Some arrangements have been made for the establishment of popular
elected Parliament & a democratic gov't. These included:-
 Dismantling the repressive organs of the Derg.
 Restoration of law & order for peaceful transition.
 d/t political organizations were established & regrouped. A new
administrative regional arrangement was made on nations & linguistic
setting.
 Eritrea's independence was recognized.
 Centralized economic system is abolished & a transitional economic
policy was issued.
 A Constitutional Commission was set up to draft the constitution was
ratified in December 1994.
The Transitional Gov't ended its mission in 1991. In that year the
country took a new name the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia. Meles Zenawi President of the Transitional Gov't was
elected as PM. He also reelected in October 2000.
BY HENOK ZEWDU 56
 The End
Thank You

BY HENOK ZEWDU 57