Work

Work is the result when a force acts on an object and moves it by some
distance. Sometimes, the direction an object moves is not the same as the
direction of the force. In that case, only the component of the force that
acts in the direction of the movement causes work to be done. The work
formula includes the cosine of the angle between the force and distance
for this reason. If the force and movement are in the same direction, then
the angle is equal to 0 radians (or 0°). The cosine of zero is: cos0 = 1.
The units of work are Joules (J), where 1 J = 1 N∙m = 1 kg∙m /s  .
2 2

No movement, No Work..
Here are some other angles:
work = force x distance×cosine(the angle between force and
movement directions)
W = Fd cosθ
W = work (units J)
k = force (units N)
d = distance (m)
θ = the angle between the force direction and movement direction
Work Formula Questions:
1) A tractor pulled a wagon full of hay a distance of 1000 m. The
force exerted on the wagon to move it that distance was 12 000
N. The force acted in the same direction as the movement. Find
how much work was done by the tractor to pull the wagon.
Answer: The force and the movement were in the same direction, so
the angle between them is 0°. The work can be found using the
formula:
W = Fd cosθ
W = Fd cos0
W = Fd(1)
W = (12 000 N)(1000 m)
W = 12 000 000 N∙m
W = 12 000 000 J
The work done by the tractor to move the wagon the given distance was 12
000 000 J, which can also be stated as mega-Joules: 12.0 MJ.
Energy can be in many forms!
A coiled spring has elastic energy.
A battery contains electrical energy.
We can drain that energy to do work.
A fuel contains chemical energy
An engine can turn that fuel into work
making your car go.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of objects.
Although there are many forms of kinetic energy, this type of energy is often
associated with the movement of larger objects. For example, thermal
energy exists because of the movement of atoms or molecules, thus thermal
energy is a variation of kinetic energy. However, most of the time, kinetic
energy refers to the energy associated with the movement of larger objects.
Therefore, if an object is not moving, it is said to have zero kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy of an object depends on both its mass and velocity, with
its velocity playing a much greater role.
Examples of Kinetic Energy:
1. An airplane has a large amount of kinetic energy in flight due to its large mass and fast
velocity.
2. A baseball thrown by a pitcher, although having a small mass, can have a large amount of
kinetic energy due to its fast velocity.
3. A downhill skier traveling down a hill has a large amount of kinetic energy because of their
mass and high velocity.
4. A golf ball sitting on a tee before it is struck has zero kinetic energy because its velocity is zero.
5. An asteroid falling to earth at incredible speeds has an enormous amount of kinetic energy.
6. A car traveling down the road has less kinetic energy than a semi-truck traveling at the same
speed because the car's mass is much less than the truck's.
7. A river flowing at a certain speed possesses kinetic energy because the water has a certain
mass and it also has velocity.
8. An insect flying has a small amount of kinetic energy because its mass and velocity are
Kinetic Energy Formula

The Kinetic energy is the energy that an object has due to its motion. E , is
k

the energy of a mass, m, in motion, v .

2

E  = 1/2 mv
k
2

E  = Kinetic energy
k

m = mass
v = velocity

Kinetic Energy Formula Questions.

1) The mass of a baby elephant is 113 kg, and it walks at a constant velocity
of 0.5 m/sec. What is the kinetic energy for the baby elephant?

Answer: 
The mass,
v = 0.5 m/sec.

Use the kinetic energy equation.

E  = 1/2 mv
k
2

E  = 1/2 (113 kg) (0.5 m/sec)

k
2

E  = 1/2 (113 kg)(0.25 m /s )

k
2 2

E  = 14.125 kg m /sec  = 14.125 Joules

k
2 2
Energy Facts
We use energy to do everything. There are many different types of energy but they
can be divided into two main types: kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic
energy is energy in motion. Potential energy is energy stored in an object at rest.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be transferred from one body to the
next.
Interesting Energy Facts:
The word energy comes from the Greek word energeia meaning activity.
Albert Einstein developed the formula E = mc2 which is used to calculate the amount of energy.
The calories in the food you eat are a form of chemical energy.
Light and sound are both types of energy.
Energy is normally measured in a unit called a joule.
Wind turbines are used to convert wind energy into a more useful form of energy such as electricity.

During photosynthesis, plants use energy from the sun to make their own food and produce oxygen.

Around 13% of the world's electricity is produced by nuclear power.

Solar energy results when sunlight is changed into electricity.
The world's largest solar power plant is located in Mojave Desert in the USA.
During a chemical reaction, such as when baking soda and vinegar are mixed, chemical energy is
converted to light and/or heat.
When objects stretch, such as a rubber band or a trampoline, energy is produced.
When power or energy is generated from running or moving water, it is called hydropower.
Without energy, we would not be able to stay alive.
The use of the word energy dates all the way back to the 4th century BC.
Potential Energy: Elastic Formula
Potential energy is energy that is stored in a system. There is the possibility,
or potential, for it to be converted to kinetic energy. Elastic potential energy
is stored in a spring that has been stretched or compressed by a distance x
away from its equilibrium position. Position x = 0 must always be the
position where the spring is most relaxed. Springs have their own natural
"spring constants" that define how stiff they are. The letter k is used for the
spring constant, and it has the units N/m. Like all work and energy, the unit
of potential energy is the Joule (J), where 1 J = 1 N∙m = 1 kg m /s  .
2 2

potential energy = 1/2(spring constant)(distance from equilibrium) 2

U = 1/2kx 2

U = potential energy of a spring at a certain position

k = the spring constant, specific to the spring, with units N/m.
x = distance the spring is stretched or compressed away from equilibrium

Potential Energy: Elastic Formula Questions:

1) A spring, which has a spring constant k = 7.50 N/m, has been stretched
0.40 m from its equilibrium position. What is the potential energy now stored
in the spring?
Answer: The spring has been stretched x = 0.40 m from equilibrium. The
potential energy can be found using the formula:
U = 1/2kx 2

U = 1/2(7.50 N/m)(0.40 m) 2

U = 0.60 N∙m

U = 0.60 J
The elastic potential energy stored by the spring when it is has been
stretched 0.40 m is 0.60 J.
Power
Power is a rate at which work is done, or energy is used. It is equal
to the amount of work done divided by the time it takes to do the
work. The unit of power is the Watt (W), which is equal to a Joule per
second (J/s).
P = power (W, or J/s)
∆W = the work done, or energy used (J)
∆t = the time taken to do the work (s)

Power Formula Questions:

1) Raising an elevator from the bottom to the top of a building
requires 950000 J of work. The elevator takes 50 seconds to reach
the top. How much power was used to raise the elevator?

Answer: The work done to raise the elevator was 950000 Joules,

and the time interval was 50 seconds. The power can be found using
the formula:
P = 19000 W
P = 19 kW

The power required to raise the elevator was 19000 Watts, which is
equal to 19 kW.
Electric Power Formula
Electric power is the rate at which energy is transferred to or from a part of an electric
circuit. A battery can deliver energy, or a circuit element like a resistor can release
energy as heat. For any circuit element, the power is equal to the voltage difference
across the element multiplied by the current. By Ohm's Law, V = IR, and so there are
additional forms of the electric power formula for resistors. Power is measured in units
of Watts (W), where a Watt is equal to a Joule per second (1 W = 1 J/s).
Momentum
In simple terms, momentum is considered to be a quantity of motion. This quantity is
measurable because if an object is moving and has mass, then it has momentum.
Something that has a large mass has a large momentum or something that is moving
very fast has a large momentum. Often times we discuss people or teams having the
"momentum" in some sports setting. For instance, if Tiger Woods starts making a
bunch of great shots in a golf match, we would say that he has momentum. When we
use the term this way, we mean that he is "on the move" or that he is unstoppable. So
objects with a large amount of momentum are hard to stop. In physics, momentum is
a quantity that can be calculated by multiplying the mass and velocity of the object
involved. Momentum is expressed by the letter p. So momentum equals mass times
velocity or p = m x v. Therefore, if any object of any mass is not moving, its
momentum is zero because its velocity is zero.
Examples of Momentum:
1. A semi-truck full of logs has a large mass and must slow down long before a stop light because
even with a small velocity, it has a large momentum and is difficult to stop.
2. A four-wheeler moving at a relatively fast velocity has a smaller momentum than the semi-truck
because of its small mass and will stop much faster.
3. A bullet, although small in mass, has a large momentum because of an extremely large velocity.
4. A 1000 kg car moving at 15 m/sec has a momentum of 15,000 kg•m/sec as a result of
multiplying the mass and the velocity.
5. A karate expert can generate enough speed with his fist that the momentum can carry through
several bricks breaking them.
6. Two football players of equal mass are traveling towards each other, one is moving at 5 m/sec
and the other at 8 m/sec. The one moving with the faster velocity has a greater momentum and
will knock the other one backwards.
Momentum and Impulse
An object has a momentum if it has a velocity. Momentum is calculated by
multiplying the mass and velocity together. Impulse is directly related to
momentum because impulse is a term describing an object's change in
momentum. In other words, if an object changes speed, then its momentum
changes. By definition this measurable quantity of momentum changing is
the impulse of the object. In order for an object's momentum to change, a
force must be applied for a period of time. So the change in momentum, or
impulse, also referred to as ∆p can be calculated by multiplying the force by
the time the force is exerted, F x t. If a large force is exerted over a small
period of time, a large change in momentum can occur. If a small force is
applied over a long period of time, the change in momentum can also be
large. The force exerted over the time period causes a change in the object's
velocity which causes the momentum to change. If the force is exerted in the
opposite direction of the object's original momentum, the object's
momentum will decrease. If the force is exerted in the same direction as the
object's original velocity, then the momentum will increase. If an object is at
rest and does not have any momentum then a force large enough to
overcome friction will cause the object to move giving the object some
momentum.
Examples of Momentum and Impulse:

1. In baseball, a ball that is only struck with a small part of the bat is not in contact
with the bat for a long period of time so the change in momentum, or impulse, is small
and the ball does not travel very far. However, if the bat strikes the ball squarely, the
force is exerted for a longer time resulting in a greater change in momentum, or
greater impulse, and the ball travels very far.
2. Air bags in cars are designed with impulse, or momentum change principles. When a
driver gets into an accident their momentum carries them forward into the steering
wheel. By putting an airbag in the car, a smaller force is exerted over a longer period
of time to change the momentum of the driver to a stop. Without the airbag, a large
force is exerted over a short time causing more damage to the driver.
3. A car traveling down the road is slowed down slightly when the brakes are just
gently tapped. The force of the brakes is exerted over a small time resulting in a small
impulse and a small change in the momentum of the car.
4. If you have ever competed in an egg toss competition and done well, you were
putting impulse into action. In order to reduce the amount of force on the egg so it
doesn't break when you catch it, you move your hands in the same direction as the
egg as you catch it. This action increases the amount of time you apply force on the
egg and the amount of force acting on the egg to change its momentum is reduced so
the egg will not break.
5. A golf ball sits on a tee motionless before the golfer swings the club and strikes the
ball. If the ball is struck in the center of the club with a good follow-through, then force
is exerted for a longer time resulting in a greater change in momentum, greater
impulse, and the ball will travel farther. If the ball is not struck in the center or the
club, then the amount of force is only enacted on the ball for a short time resulting in a
smaller change in momentum and the ball doesn't go as far.
Impulse Formula
Impulse is a quantity that is closely related to momentum. Impulse is a vector,
with both a value and a direction, and is represented by the symbol . Impulse
is the product of a constant force , and a time interval . The Greek
letter ("delta") is used to mean "the change in", and is the amount of time
for which the force is applied. The unit of impulse is the Newton-second, .

= impulse ( )
= applied force (N)
= time interval for which the force is applied (s)
Impulse Formula Questions:
1) A thruster rocket on a spaceship exerts a force of , in the starboard
direction. If the thruster is on for , what is the resulting impulse?
Answer: The direction of the impulse will be the same as the applied force
(starboard direction). The magnitude of the impulse can be found using the
formula:

7500N.s
The impulse resulting from the thruster rocket is , in the starboard
direction.
Impulse-Momentum Theorem Formula
Impulse is a quantity that is closely related to momentum. When an object has
a momentum , and a force is applied for an amount of time, the momentum
can change to a new value . The impulse-momentum theorem states that the
impulse is equal to this change in momentum. Impulse is a vector, with both a
value and a direction, and is represented by the symbol . Momentum is equal
to the mass times the velocity of an object ( ). The unit of impulse is the
Newton-second, , which is equivalent to .

= impulse ( , or )
= final momentum ( )
= initial momentum ( )
Impulse-Momentum Theorem Questions:
1) A ball with a mass of 0.350 kg bounces off of a wall. Initially, it traveled
horizontally to the right, toward the wall at 25.0 m/s. In then bounces, and
travels horizontally to the left, away from the wall at 15.0 m/s. What is the
impulse of this collision between the ball and the wall?
Answer: The first step is to define a positive direction. The problem can be
solved with either the left or right horizontal direction defined as positive, but
for this solution, the positive direction will be horizontally to the left (away from
the wall). With this definition, the initial velocity of the ball
is (horizontally), and the final velocity of the ball
is (horizontally). The initial momentum is:

The final momentum is:

The impulse of the collision is:

The impulse of the collision is , horizontally to the left.

Elastic Collision
An elastic collision is a collision where both kinetic energy, KE, and
momentum, p, are conserved. This means that KE  = KE  and p  = p . 0 f o f

Recalling that KE = 1/2 mv , we write 1/2 m (v )2 + 1/2 m (v )2 = 1/2 2

1 1i 2 i

m (v )  + 1/2 m  (v ) , the final total KE of the two bodies is the same as the
1 1f
2
2 2f
2

initial total KE of the two bodies. And, since p = linear momentum = mv,
then we write m v  + m v  = m v  + m v . 1 1i 2 2i 1 1f 2 2f

[A] m v  + m 1 1i 2v2i  = m1v1f + m2v2f

[B] 1/2 m (v )  + 1/2 m (v )  = 1/2 m (v )  + 1/2

1 1i
2
2 i
2
1 1f
2

m  (v ) 2 2f
2

KE = kinetic energy
p = momentum
m = mass, kg
m  = mass of 1st object
i

m = mass of 2nd object

2

v = velocity, m/s
v  = velocity of 1st object
1

v  = velocity of 2nd object

2

v  = initial velocity
i

v  = final velocity
f
Elastic Collision Formula Questions:

1) A red ball of mass 0.2 kg hits a blue ball of mass 0.25 kg, in an
elastic collision, and the red ball comes to a stop. The red ball has a
velocity of 5 m/s, and the blue ball was at rest. What is the final
velocity of the blue ball?

Answer: The mass of the 1st ball, m  = 0.2 kg; the mass of the 2nd
1

ball, m  = 0.20kg. The initial velocity of the 1st ball, v  = 5 m/s; the
2 1i

initial velocity of the 2nd ball, v  = 0; the final velocity of the 1st ball,
2i

(v ) = 0.
1f

m v  + m v  = m v  + m v
1 1i 2 2i 1 1f 2 2f

(0.2 kg)(5 m/s) + (0.25 kg)(0 m/s) = (0.2 kg)(0) + (0.25 kg)(v ) 2f

1.0 kg.m/s + 0 = 0 + (0.25 kg)(v ) 2f

1.0 kg.m/s = (0.25 kg)(v ) 2f

(1.0 kg.m/s) / 0.2 kg = (v ) 2f

4 m/s = (v ) 2f
Inelastic Collision
An inelastic collision is any collision between objects in which some energy is
lost. A special case of this is sometimes called the "perfectly" inelastic collision.
In a perfectly inelastic collision, two objects collide and stick together. The
momentum of the objects before the collision is conserved, but the total energy
is not conserved. The final velocity of the combined objects depends on the
masses and velocities of the two objects that collided. The units for the initial
and final velocities are m/s, and the unit for mass is kg.

mass of a first object (kg)

mass of a second object (kg)
initial velocity of the first object (m/s)
initial velocity of the second object (m/s)
final velocity of the combined objects (m/s)
Inelastic Collision Formula Questions:
1) A man shoots a paintball at an old can on a fencepost. The paintball pellet
has a mass of 0.200 g, and the can has a mass of 15.0 g. The paintball hits the
can at a velocity of 90.0 m/s. If the full mass of the paintball sticks to the can
and knocks it off the post, what is the final velocity of the combined paintball
and can?
Answer: The final velocity can be found for the combined paintball and can by
rearranging the formula:

The mass of the paintball is 0.200 g, which is equal to 0.000200 kg, and the
mass of the can is 15.0 g, which is equal to 0.015 kg. The initial velocity of the
paintball is 90.0 m/s. The can starts at rest, so its initial velocity is 0.0 m/s.

1.18 m/s
After the collision, the velocity of the paintball and can together is 1.18 m/s.
Gravity
Gravity is the Force of attraction between two objects times the
gravitational constant, and inversely related to the square of the
distance between the objects.

Force = [gravitational constant x masses (m  x m )] / (radius)

1 2
2

F = [Gm m ] / r
1 2
2

F = force of gravity, N/kg

G = gravitational constant, 6.67 x 10  N-m /kg
-11 2 2

m  = 1st mass, kg
1

m  = 2nd mass, kg
2

r = distance between the two masses, m

Gravity Formula Questions:

1) What is the gravitational force acting upon two objects of masses
15 g and 15 kg, that are 11 m apart?

Answer: 
the gravitational constant, G, is defined as 6.67 x 10   N-m /kg  ;
-11 2 2

m  = 15 g = 0.015 kg; m  = 15 kg; r = 11m.

1 2

F = [Gm m ] / r
1 2
2

F = [6.67 x 10-11 N-m /kg  (0.015 x 15)kg] / (11 m)

2 2 2

F = 1.24 x 10-13 N / kg
Center of Mass
The center of mass is a point of balance of an object or a group of objects. The
center of mass can be found for any one, two-, or three-dimensional object, and
so the units are meters (m) in each dimension. The formula given here is for
the center of mass in one dimension.

X = center of mass (m)

mi = mass of a part of an object (kg)
xi = position of the part of an object (m)
Center of Mass Formula Questions:
1) The minute hand of a clock consists of an arrow and a circle connected by a
thin piece of metal with negligible mass. The arrow has a mass of 15.0 g, and
the circle has a mass of 60.0 g. If the circle is at position 0.000 m, and the
arrow is at position 0.100 m, where is the center of mass?
Answer: The center of mass of the minute hand can be found using the
formula:

X = 0.020 m
The center of mass is 0.020 m from the circle.
Center of Gravity
The Center of Gravity is the same as the centroid when the
density is the same throughout.
Center of gravity, center of mass and centroid are all the
same for simple solids.
They are often marked by a cross or dot and sometimes the
letters CG or just G

A force that goes through the center of gravity won't

cause any rotation. In fact you can balance an object by
supporting it directly below its center of gravity.