What is ALARA

ALARA is an acronym for:

As Low As Reasonably Achievable

Radiation safety principle for minimizing

radiation doses by employing all reasonable
methods.
As Low As Reasonably
Achievable
 Taking into account:
 Social,
 Technical,
 Economic,
 Practical, and
 Public policy considerations.
ALARA is not only a sound safety principle,
but is a regulatory requirement for all
radiation safety programs.

Which is the Regulatory Authority in

Pakistan for nuclear issues ?
Principles of ALARA
1. Any radiation exposures must have a
corresponding positive benefit.
2. The radiation doses must never exceed
the regulatory limits.
3. The doses should be controlled so that
they are:
“As Low As Reasonably Achievable” taking
into account economic and social factors.
What is “reasonably
achievable”?
Reducing the dose from 50 mrem to
25 mrem is insignificant compared to
a reduction from 500 mrem to 250
mrem, which is quite significant. Even
though both contribute to 50%
reduction in dose.
There is always a cost of the benefit
of “reducing exposure”, which should
be economically feasible.
Why ALARA?

Applying the ALARA approach is a way to

eliminate unnecessary exposure and also
exposures which can be avoided at a
reasonable cost for the society.
What is the Basis for ALARA?
 Current “Linear Hypothesis”.

 Radiation dose of any magnitude can produce an

increased risk of genetic mutations and cancer.

 Radiation safety programs attempt to lower

doses received by radiation workers by utilizing
practical, cost effective measures.
 Basis for cancer risk & LNT

single particle single DNA cancer

of radiation molecule initiation

probability of  number the

 number of 
cancer initiation of hits particles dose

Cancer risk is therefore linearly dependent

on dose with no mention of a threshold
 Biological Organization: Cell
Nucleus
– Contains instructions
for:
• Cellular reproduction
• Cellular function
contained within
chromosomes
Chromosomes
– Strands of amino acids
(deoxyribonucleic acids –
DNA)
– Abnormal bodily function if
damaged or malformed
DNA is the
primary target for
biological damage!
Segment of DNA Strand

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 How Does Radiation
Damage Occur?
The single However, the
strand double strand
break (left) break (right)
can be means that
easily the sequence
patched up – is split into
the DNA two and it’s
helix is still not possible
held in one to stitch
piece. them back
together.
 Damage and Recovery
Single-strand breaks
• Most DNA damage is
repaired, with no long-term
effects

Double-strand breaks
• Not as easily repaired, more
potential for long-term damage
• Comparatively rare (about 1
DSB to 25 SSB)
 Cellular Effects of Radiation:
Free Radical Formation
 Direct Effect of Radiation on Cells
 Ionization and excitation of intracellular water
molecules produces free radicals

 Indirect Effect of Radiation on Cells

 Subsequent interference of free radicals with
cells not direct affected by radiation
 Cellular Effects of Radiation:
Free Radical Formation
 Radical
 An atom (either neutral or charged) with unpaired
electrons that wants to join with another atom to
stabilize itself
 Free radicals
 Radicals that have not yet bonded with other
atoms
 Highly reactive atoms or chemical compounds that
can alter existing state of cells
 Changes in cellular chemistry are the root
causes of all the harmful effects of radiation.
Radiation Damage Mechanisms
1. Direct Action: Direct
ionization of the DNA
molecule, which may
result in genetic
damage.

2. Indirect Action:
Radiation ionizes water,
which causes free
radicals to form. Free
radicals attack targets
such as DNA. Much
more common.
Possible Effects to Cells

1. Radiation may pass

through cell without
doing any damage.
2. Damage may occur
but be repaired.
3. The damaged cell
may reproduce in its
damaged form.
4. The cell may die.
 What happens when
radiation hits a cell ?
Ionizing Radiation

Human Cells

Atoms in Cells Form Ions

No Change in Cell Change in Cell Cell Dies

Reproduces Replaced

Malignant Growth Benign Growth Not Replaced

Linear No Threshold (LNT)
Hypothesis

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Linear No Threshold (LNT)
Hypothesis
Linear No Threshold (LNT)
Hypothesis
Linear No Threshold (LNT)
Hypothesis
Linear No Threshold (LNT)
Hypothesis

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Linear with Threshold

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Radiation Hormesis
CATEGORIES OF RISK

 There are two types of risk to which we

are all exposed, namely acute risk and
chronic risk.
 Acute risks are those where the harmful
effects are felt immediately, and chronic
risks are those where the harmful effects
don't show up until much later.

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Occupational Risks
 Miners face an acute risk of being buried
in collapsing tunnels and a chronic risk of
contracting respiratory diseases.
 Long-distance truck drivers are exposed to
an acute risk of highway accidents.
 Factory workers are exposed to chemicals
and dust and have a chronic risk of ill-
health from long hours of working.

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ACUTE RADIATION RISK
 The acute radiation risk in the nuclear
power industry is very low.
 Fatality rate from industrial accidents in
the western world i.e., 7 per 100 million
man-hours worked.

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CHRONIC RADIATION RISK
 The accepted value of the radiation risk
for Radiological Workers is 4% per 1 Sv.
 i.e., a radiation dose of one Sievert, will
have an extra 4% chance of contracting a
fatal cancer.
 One in every four people (25%) die of
cancer anyway.

KINPOE-XVII-NPE-545 Tariq Bin Tahir 30

OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION
RISK
 The average annual dose to staff at an NPP
is about 2 mSv. At 4%/Sv, this represents
a risk of 0.008% for each year they work.
 There are two ways of expressing such a
risk to make it easier to compare with
other risks arising in industry. One is the
hourly risk, and the other is the loss of
life expectancy.

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HOURLY RISK
 Hourly radiation risk is 0.04 of one chance
in a million or 25 hours of work gives you a
one in a million risk of contracting a fatal
cancer.

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Daily Risk
 Multiply the hourly radiation risk by 8, the
number of hours worked.
 We get 8 x 0.04x10-6 = 0.32x10-6 for working an
eight hour day.
 The fatal traffic accident risk connected with
driving 40 miles to work and 40 miles back home
is 3.2x10-6.
 This means that travelling to and from work
each day is ten times as risky as the radiation
hazards you are likely to face once you get
there.

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 Risk Comparisons
- increasing the risk of death by one in a million

Activity Cause of death

Smoking 1.4 cigarettes Cancer, heart disease

Living 2 months with a cigarette smoker Cancer, heart disease

Travelling 80 km by car Accident

Flying 1600 km by jetplane Cancer caused by cosmic gamma rays

Spending 1 hour in a coal mine Black lung disease

Living 2 months in an average stone or brick house Cancer from natural radioactivity

Living 20 years near a PVC plant Cancer from vinyl chloride (1976 standard)

1 chest X-ray Cancer caused by radiation

Living 1.5 years at site boundary of a typical NPP Cancer caused by radiation

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