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Eukaryotic cells are organised around systems of membranes

Cells are surrounded Plasma Membrane
by a plasma membrane
Cytosol
within which is
contained a complex The plasma
fluid called the membrane serves
cytosol as a boundary
between the cell
Suspended in the and its
cytosol are numerous environment
specialised
membrane-bound It retains the cell
structures called as a unit and, due
organelles to its partial
permeability,
The cytosol regulates the
together with the movement of
organelles materials into and
make up the out of the cell
cytoplasm
Plasma membranes vary in thickness
between
 Eukaryotic cells are organised around systems of membranes
Plasma Membrane
The plasma membranes Microvilli
of animals cells Cytosol
are often highly
At
folded and form magnifications
microvilli of around
250 000,
Microvilli increase membranes are
the surface area seen to have a
available for the three-layered
exchange of materials structure
Membranes are
composed primarily
of phospholipid and
protein molecules magnify

Plasma membranes vary in thickness

between
 cytosol extra-
cellular
fluid

The three-layered structure is seen as three-layered membrane

two thin dense outer layers surrounding structure
a thicker but less dense middle region
Animal cells, with The nucleus contains the hereditary material
the exception of in the form of chromatin in non-dividing cells
mammalian red blood Chromatin appears
cells, possess a nucleus as granular material
The nucleus is a in the nucleoplasm
large spherical or During cell
oval organelle division chromatin
surrounded by a condenses into
double membrane more tightly
called the coiled threads
nuclear envelope called chromosomes
The nuclear envelope Nuclear Envelope
is perforated by Nuclear Pore
nuclear pores
Nucleoplasm
The fluid contained The Nucleolus is
within the nucleus a small densely
is called staining disc within
nucleoplasm the nucleus
The nucleus contains the hereditary material and
controls the activities of the cell
 Chromatin - granular Nuclear Envelope
appearance of the (double membrane)
hereditary material
in non-dividing cells
Nuclear pore
Coiled and
condensed chromatin
forms distinctive Nucleoplasm
thread-like
chromosomes during Nucleolus
cell division

DNA is the material of heredity; DNA associated with histone

protein molecules forms the chromatin of the non-dividing cell
 The nuclear envelope is a double-layered structure consisting
of two adjacent membranes, 40-70 nm apart, forming a
perinuclear space

The envelope is perforated by pores,

each about 50-70 nm in diameter

The pores enable communication perinuclear

to occur between the nucleus space
and the cytoplasm

ribosomes

two membranes (envelope)

Ribosomes are often found attached

to the external membrane
 mitochondrion

nuclear envelope

nucleolus

chromatin
Mitochondria are rod-shaped
organelles concerned with
energy production

Each mitochondrion
Much of the process consists of an outer
of aerobic respiration smooth membrane
occurs within the and an inner
mitochondria folded membrane

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Mitochondria are loosely termed the

‘powerhouses of the cell’
 The folds are
called cristae

Outer smooth Inner folded membrane

membrane

The surfaces
of
the cristae are
studded with
Fluid matrix Fluid matrix minute spheres
of outer compartment of inner compartment
endoplasmic fluid matrix cristae outer
reticulum membrane
 Extending from the nuclear membrane and
continuous with it is the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Free ribosomes are
also found within
the cytosol

Reticulum means
Rough endoplasmic
network and the reticulum neatly
rough endoplasmic compartmentalises
reticulum is an the cell and
provides a transport
extensive network of system for newly
flattened sacs that synthesised proteins
extend throughout
the cell
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with

ribosomes which are the sites of protein synthesis
Proteins are synthesised at the
ribosomes and engulfed into
the cavities of the endoplasmic
reticulum
Newly synthesised proteins
are transported to
different parts of the cell

Lamellae or
flattened sacs
of the endoplasmic
reticulum, each junction between
made up of the lamellae of
two membranes the endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Cavity of - sites of
endoplasmic reticulum PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 cavity of
endoplasmic reticulum ribosome
A second type of endoplasmic reticulum This is the smooth endoplasmic
also occurs within the cytosol reticulum

Unlike the rough

endoplasmic Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum, there are reticulum consists
no ribosomes of a system of
associated with the branching tubes
smooth endoplasmic and is concerned
with the synthesis
reticulum of steroids
and fatty acids

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 The Golgi Apparatus or Materials are concentrated and packaged into
Golgi Body is a stack of 4 to 8 vesicles that appear as ‘pinched off’ portions
membrane-bound sacs of the Golgi Apparatus
located close to the nucleus

Proteins and lipids The vesicles

are modified and form a satellite
packaged within the around the
Golgi Apparatus stacked membranes
in preparation for
distribution within
the cell or export Secretory cells
from the cell
possess well
developed
Golgi Bodies

The principal role of the Golgi Apparatus is that

of secretion from the cell
 The Golgi Apparatus exists as stacks of closely packed
membrane bounded sacs or cisternae

satellite of vesicles

cisternae

Clusters of ‘pinched off’

portions of the Golgi body The Golgi Apparatus is highly
form a satellite of vesicles developed in cells secreting proteins
around the array of cisternae or complex carbohydrates
 stacked
membranes

Golgi
vesicles
 Lysosomes are membrane bound
Lysosomes perform a organelles that contain digestive enzymes
number of functions known as acid hydrolases

Destruction of Destruction of
bacteria and the entire cell
other debris when damaged
taken into or diseased
the cell
Release of the
Destruction of
digestive enzymes
ageing, redundant
FROM the cell to
cell organelles
degrade other
cells

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DESTRUCTION The plasma membrane
OF BACTERIAL invaginates and engulfs
CELLS the bacterial cell by a
process known as
ENDOCYTOSIS
DESTRUCTION The plasma membrane
OF BACTERIAL invaginates and engulfs
CELLS the bacterial cell by a
process known as
ENDOCYTOSIS

A phagocytic
vacuole
containing the
engulfed bacterial
cell is formed

A primary lysosome
now fuses with
the phagocytic
vacuole
DESTRUCTION The plasma membrane
OF BACTERIAL invaginates and engulfs
CELLS the bacterial cell by a
process known as
ENDOCYTOSIS

A phagocytic
vacuole
containing the
engulfed bacterial
cell is formed

A primary lysosome
now fuses with
the phagocytic
vacuole

A secondary lysosome
forms within which
digestion of the bacterial
cell takes place
DESTRUCTION The plasma membrane
OF BACTERIAL invaginates and engulfs
CELLS the bacterial cell by a
process known as
Some of the ENDOCYTOSIS
products of
digestion are
absorbed into A phagocytic
the cytosol vacuole
containing the
engulfed bacterial
cell is formed

A primary lysosome
now fuses with
the phagocytic
vacuole

A secondary lysosome
forms within which
digestion of the bacterial
cell takes place
DESTRUCTION The plasma membrane
OF BACTERIAL invaginates and engulfs
CELLS the bacterial cell by a
process known as
Some of the ENDOCYTOSIS
products of
digestion are
absorbed into A phagocytic
the cytosol vacuole
containing the
The undigested engulfed bacterial
remains are cell is formed
retained within the
lysosome which is A primary lysosome
now termed the now fuses with
RESIDUAL BODY the phagocytic
vacuole

A secondary lysosome
forms within which
The residual body migrates digestion of the bacterial
to the plasma membrane cell takes place
releasing its contents by
EXOCYTOSIS
DESTRUCTION The plasma membrane
OF BACTERIAL invaginates and engulfs
CELLS the bacterial cell by a
process known as
Some of the ENDOCYTOSIS
products of This example of
digestion are lysosome activity is a
absorbed into form of Intracellular A phagocytic
the cytosol Digestion vacuole
containing the
The undigested engulfed bacterial
remains are cell is formed
retained within the
lysosome which is A primary lysosome
now termed the now fuses with
RESIDUAL BODY the phagocytic
vacuole

A secondary lysosome
forms within which
The residual body migrates digestion of the bacterial
to the plasma membrane cell takes place
releasing its contents by
EXOCYTOSIS
 Another function of
DESTRUCTION
lysosomes concerns
OF AGEING
cytoplasmic turnover
ORGANELLES
When a cell organelle
ages or becomes
redundant, it
becomes surrounded
by a membrane to
form a vacuole
A primary lysosome
fuses with this vacuole
and forms a
secondary lysosome
 Another function of
DESTRUCTION
lysosomes concerns
OF AGEING
cytoplasmic turnover
ORGANELLES
When a cell organelle
ages or becomes
redundant, it
becomes surrounded
by a membrane to
form a vacuole
The undigested
remains are A primary lysosome
retained within the fuses with this vacuole
lysosome which is and forms a
now termed the secondary lysosome
RESIDUAL BODY The organelle is
degraded and some
of the products of
digestion are absorbed
The residual body migrates into the cytosol
to the plasma membrane
releasing its contents by
EXOCYTOSIS
 Another function of
DESTRUCTION
lysosomes concerns
OF AGEING
cytoplasmic turnover
ORGANELLES
When a cell organelle
ages or becomes
redundant, it
becomes surrounded
by a membrane to
form a vacuole
The undigested
remains are A primary lysosome
retained within the fuses with this vacuole
lysosome which is and forms a
now termed the secondary lysosome
RESIDUAL BODY The organelle is
degraded and some
of the products of
digestion are absorbed
The residual body migrates into the cytosol
to the plasma membrane
releasing its contents by
EXOCYTOSIS
EXTRACELLULAR
ACTION OF Primary Lysosomes
LYSOSOMES

Sometimes the
enzymes of primary
lysosomes are
released from the
cell and therefore act
EXTRACELLULARLY
EXTRACELLULAR
ACTION OF Degradative Enzyme
LYSOSOMES Molecules
Certain types of
bone cell (osteoclasts)
release such enzymes
to destroy cartilage
tissue which can then
be replaced by bone

This activity occurs

during development

THE DIGESTIVE
ENZYMES OF THE
LYSOSOMES
Sometimes the MAY ACT OUTSIDE
enzymes of primary THE CELL AND
lysosomes are PERFORM
released from the EXTRACELLULAR
cell and therefore act FUNCTIONS
EXTRACELLULARLY
DESTRUCTION
OF THE ENTIRE When a cell becomes
CELL damaged or diseased,
all the lysosomal
membranes become
leaky

Digestive enzymes
flood the entire cell
and cell death
follows
DESTRUCTION
OF THE ENTIRE When a cell becomes
CELL damaged or diseased,
all the lysosomal
membranes become
leaky

Digestive enzymes
flood the entire cell
and cell death
follows

Lysosomes are
This function of loosely termed the
lysosomes in bringing SUICIDE BAGS
about cell death of the cell
is called AUTOLYSIS
 Many animal cells display a dense area of cytoplasm close
to the nucleus called the centrosome

The centrosome
contains a pair of
centrioles
cylindrical structures
called centrioles
positioned at MORE
right angles to DETAIL
one another

Centrioles are involved in cell division when they generate spindle fibres,
which are responsible for the separation of chromosomes
 The centriole cylinder consists of nine sets of tube-like structures
that together form the wall of the cylinder

TRIPLET
OF
MICROTUBULES

Each tube-like structure is composed of three tiny tubes called MICROTUBULES

The microtubules are arranged in TRIPLETS

CENTRIOLES PLAY A PART IN

CELL DIVISION IN ANIMAL CELLS
 Plasma membrane Microvilli Cytosol Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

Golgi body
Lysosome

Mitochondrion
Free ribosomes
Centrioles
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Microtubules

Nucleus
 Acknowledgements

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