Module 3.1.

Fabrication processes:
Venkateswara Rao Kolli
Assistant Professor
E&C Engineering,

MCE,Hassan.
 Syllabus
Fabrication processes:
1.Photolithography,
2.Ion Implantation,
3.Diffusion,
4.Oxidation
 1.Photolithography
Photolithography is the basic technique used to define the shape of
micromachined structures in the three techniques outlined below.

The technique is essentially the same as that used in the microelectronics

industry.
Photolithography process involves the use of an optical image and a
photosensitive film to produce desired patterns on a substrate.

The “optical image” is originally in macro scale, but is photographically reduced

to the micro-scale to be printed on the silicon substrates.

The desired patterns are first printed on light-transparent mask, usually made of
quartz.
The mask is then placed above the top-face of a silicon substrate coated with thin
film of photoresistive materials.

The mask can be in contact with the photoresistave material, or placed with a
gap, or inclined to the substrate surface:
 Photolithography- Cont’d
Photolithography process involves the use of an optical image and a
photosensitive film to produce desired patterns on a substrate.

The “optical image” is originally in macro scale, but is photographically

reduced to the micro-scale to be printed on the silicon substrates.

The desired patterns are first printed on light-transparent mask, usually

made of quartz.

The mask is then placed above the top-face of a silicon substrate coated
with thin film of photoresistive materials.

The mask can be in contact with the photoresistave material, or placed

with a gap, or inclined to the substrate surface:
Light Light Light
Mask

Si substrate
Si substrate
Si substrate
Photoresistive coating
 Photolithography-Cont’d

Positive resist:
Substrate (a)

Photoresist
(b)
Substrate

UV light or (c)
other sources
Mask
Negative resist:
Substrate (a)

Processes: (b)
(a) Development
(b) Etching
(c) Photoresist removal (c)
 Photolithography- Cont’d

The two kinds of photoresists:

● Positive resists:

There are two kinds of positive resists:

(1) the PMMA (polymethymethacrylate) resists,
(2) the two-component DQN resist involving diazoquinone ester (DQ) and
phenolic novolak resin (N).

In the latter kind, the first component takes about 20-50% by weight in
the compound.

Positive resists are sensitive to UV lights with the maximum sensitivity at

a wavelength of 220 nm.

The PMMA resists are also used in photolithography involving electron beam,
ion beam and x-ray. Most positive resists can be developed in alkaline solvents
such as KOH (potassium peroxide), TMAH (tetramethylammonium hydroxide),
ketones or acetates.
 Photolithography- Cont’d

● Negative resists:

(1) Two-component bis (aryl) azide rubber resists, and

(2) Kodak KTFR (azide-sensitized polyisotroprene rubber).

Negative resists are less sensitive to optical and x-ray exposures but
more sensitive to electron beams.

Xylene is the most commonly used solvent for developing negative

resists.
Line definitions of photoresists:
In general, positive resists provide more clear edge definitions than the
negative resists. So, it is a better option for high resolution patterns
for micro devices.

(a) by negative resists (b) by positive resists

 Photolithography- Cont’d
Application of photoresists
● The process begins with securing the substrate wafer onto the top of a vacuum chuck.
● A resist puddle is first applied to the center portion of the wafer from a dispenser.
● The wafer is then subjected to high speed spinning at a rotational speed from 1500 to
8000 rpm for 10 to 60 seconds. The speed is set depending on the type of the resist,
the desired thickness and uniformity of the resist coating.
● The centrifugal forces applied to the resist puddle cause a uniform spread of the fluid
over the entire surface of the wafer.
● Typically the thickness is between 0.5 – 2 m with 5 nm variation.
For some microsystems applications, the thickness had been increased to 1 cm.

Dispenser Reduce size by controlled

spinning speed
Resist Edge
Resist Photoresist
puddle Wafer Catch cup
spray
bead Wafer
Vacuum
Vacuum chuck chuck
Spinner
motor
To drain &
To vacuum exhaust
pump
 Photolithography- Cont’d
Light sources

Photoresist materials used in micro fabrication are sensitive to

light with wavelength ranging from 300 to 500 nm.

Most popular light source for photolithography is the mercury vapor

lamps. This light source provides a wavelength spectrum from 310 to 440
nm.

Deep UV (ultra violet) light has a wavelength of 150-300 nm and

the UV light source has wavelengths between 350-500 nm.

In special applications for extremely high resolutions, x-ray is

used. The wavelength of x-ray is in the range from 4 to 50
Angstrom.
(an Angstrom, = 0.1 nm or 10-4 m).
 Photolithography- ends

Photoresist development
Dispenser
● The same spinner may be used for Resist Edge Photoresist
development after exposure with Resist
dispensing development solvent. puddle spray Catch cup
bead Wafer
W
● A rising distilled water follow Vacuum chuck af
Vacuum
chuck
the development. Spinner
er
● Developers agent for +ve resistor motor
To drain &
are KOH or TMAH. Xylene is the To vacuum exhaust
agent for –ve resistors, pump

Photoresist removal and postbaking

● After development and the desired pattern in created in the substrate,

a descumming process takes place.
● The process uses O2 plasma to remove the bulk of photoresist.
● Postbaking to remove the residue of solvent at 120oC for 20 minutes.
● Etching will remove all residue photoresist.
Negative Photoresist
Photolithography…contd

Fig. 1 Positive and negative photolithography

 Photolithography…contd
• Figure 1 a shows a thin film of some material (e.g., silicon
dioxide) on a substrate of some other material (e.g., a silicon
wafer).
• The goal of the process is to selectively remove some silicon
dioxide (oxide) so that it only remains in particular areas on the
silicon wafer, Fig. 1f.
• The process beings with producing a mask.
• This will typically be a chromium pattern on a glass plate.
• The wafer is then coated with a polymer which is sensitive to
ultraviolet light, Fig. 1b, called a photoresist.
• Ultraviolet light is then shone through the mask onto the
photoresist, Fig. 1c.
• The photoresist is then developed which transfers the pattern on
the mask to the photoresist layer, Fig. 1d.
Photolithography…contd

• There are two types of photoresist, termed positive (lefts side of Fig. 1) and negative
(right side of Fig. 19.12).

• Where the ultraviolet light strikes the positive resist it weakens the polymer, so that
when the image is developed the resist is washed away where the light struck it—
transferring a positive image of the mask to the resist layer. It is similar to glass-plate
photography.

• The opposite occurs with the negative resist. Where the ultraviolet light strikes negative
resist it strengthens the polymer, so when developed the resist that was not exposed to
ultraviolet light is washed away—a negative image of the mask is transferred to the
resist.

• A chemical (or some other method) is then used to remove the oxide where it is
exposed through the openings in the resist, Fig. 1e.

• Finally the resist is removed leaving the patterned oxide, Fig. 1f.
Etching Methods
 Wet Etching

•The process of removing material through the openings in a

suitable masking layer, such as patterned photoresist.
 Isotropic Wet Chemical Etching

The oldest form of etching is immersion of the patterned substrate in a suitable

liquid chemical that attacks the exposed region of the substrate, and leaves the
protected regions alone.
Acid etching of metal plates (engraving) has been used by artists for many
centuries to make master plates for printing artworks.
The rate of etching and the shape of the resulting etched feature depend on many
things:
• The type of substrate, the specific chemistry of the etchant,
• The choice of masking layer (and the tightness of its adhesion to the substrate),
• The temperature (which controls reaction rates), and whether or not the
solution is well stirred (which affects the rate of arrival of fresh reactants at the
surface).

• Figure 3.17 illustrates the use of isotropic wet etching through the openings
 Anisotropic Wet Etching-
•When etching a single crystal, certain etchants exhibit orientation-dependent etch
rates.
•Specifically, strong bases, such as potassium hydroxide (KOH), tetramethyl
ammonium hydroxide (TmAH), and ethylene diamine pyrochatecol (EDP), exhibit
highly orientation-dependent etch characteristics in silicon.
•Hydroflouric acid exhibits similar orientation-dependent effects when etching single-
crystal quartz.
Materials and Etchants
Bulk Micromanufacturing- Cont’d

Control of wet etching – Cont’d

B. Etch stop:
Etching may be stopped by the following two methods, both related
to doping of the silicon substrates.

● Controlled by doping:
Doped silicon dissolved faster in etchants than pure silicon.

● Controlled by electrochemical etch stop:

Current Constant
adjustmen voltage
Inert substrate t V supply
container

Etching stops at the interface of

p- and n-type of the doped
silicon.
Etchants
Etching

SiO2 or Si3N4
n-type Masking
p-type Counter electrode
silico
n silico
n
 p+ Etch Stop

•If instead of using an n-type diffusion into a p-wafer, a heavily boron

doped p+ layer is formed by ion implantation and diffusion
•The anisotropic etch will terminate without requiring application of
anodic bias.
• This greatly simplifies the tooling required to perform the etch.
Furthermore, the p+ diaphragm will have residual tensile stress
that might affect the performance of any device, such as a pressure
sensor, that depends on the mechanical properties of structure.
 Dielectric Etch Stop

•If the n-layer of Fig. of Electrochemical Etch Stop were

replaced by a material that is not etched
•Example: silicon nitride, then the result of the anisotropic etch
is a silicon nitride diaphragm suspended over a hole through the
silicon.
 No Etch Stop

•If no etch stop is used, a hole is produced all the way through
the wafer.

• The sloped sidewalls of the holes also offer an opportunity for

making interconnects between the back and the front of a
wafer
Bulk Micromanufacturing- Cont’d

Dry Etching
Dry etching involves the removal of substrate materials by gaseous
etchants. It is more a physical than chemical process.

3 dry etching techniques:

● Ion etching.
● Plasma etching.
● Reactive ion etching. Deep reactive ion etching
(DRIE)
Plasma etching:

Plasma is a neutral ionized gas carrying a large number of free

electrons and positively charged ions.

A common source of energy for generating plasma is the radio

frequency (RF) source.

Chemical reactive gas, e.g. CCℓ2F2, is mixed with plasma in etching

process. Other chemical reactive gases for different substrates are given in
Table 9.3.
Bulk Micromanufacturing- Cont’d

Plasma etching – Cont’d

The working principle:

● Plasma etching operates on both high kinetic energy and chemical reactions
between neutrals (N) and the substrate materials.
● The reactive gas, e.g. CCℓ2F2 in the carrier gas ions produces reactive
neutrals (N).
● The reactive neutrals (N) attacks both the normal surface and the side walls.
RF Source
● TheAsions (+) the
result, onlyetching
attack the normal surface only.
front advances much faster
in the depth than on the
sides.
Plasma with
Rate of dry etching: ions and reactive neutrals
● Conventional dry etching by + N
ions is slow in rates at about Reactive
+ ions N
0.1 µm/min, but plasma
etching may increase Mask N
+ + + N
neutrals
N
this rate to 2 µm/min. N
N N
● The rate of dry etching Side
can be
“stretched” to 5 µm/min. It is much walls
Normal surface
faster and cleaner than wet etching. Etched
substrate
Bulk Micromanufacturing- Cont’d

Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)

Why DRIE? Etched cavity
● Plasma etching can produce deeper
trenches, than wet etching, but with tapered
 Depth, H
angles.
● Tapered trenches are not desirable in many Substrate

applications such as resonators

that involve pairs of “centipedes-like”
micro devices with overlapped
“fingers”:

Plate- resonators Spring resonator

● DRIE process may produce deep trenches with θ ≈
0.
Bulk Micromanufacturing- Cont’d

Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)

Working principle:
● The DRIE process provides thin films of a few microns protective coatings on the
sidewalls during the etching process.
● It involves the use of a high-density plasma source.
● The process allows alternating process of plasma (ion) etching of the substrate
material and the deposition of etching-protective material on the sidewalls.
● Special polymers are frequently used for side-wall protective films.

What DRIE can do: Plasma with

● The DRIE process has produced ions and reactive neutrals
MEMS structures with A/P** = 30 with + N
virtually vertical walls of  = 2o for
several years. + ions N Reactive

● Recent developments have used Mask + + +

N
neutrals
better N
N
sidewall protecting materials. N N
N
For example, silicon substrates
with A/P over 100 was
achieved DRIE etched
with  = 2 at a depth of up to 300 m.
o
substrate
** The
A/P etching
= Aspectrate, however,
ratio was reduced
= the dimension in vertical to horizontal directions
to 2-3 m/min.
Bulk Micromanufacturing- cont’d

Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)- Cont’d

Recent development:

● Recent developments have substantially improved the performance of

DRIE with better sidewall protecting materials.

● Silicon substrates with A/P over 100 was with  = 2o at a depth of up to 300
m was achieved. The etching rate, however, was reduced to 2-3 m/min.

Popular side wall protecting materials:

Sidewall protection materials Selectivity ratio Aspect ratio, A/P

Polymer 30:1

Photoresists 50:1 100:1

Silicon dioxide 120:1 200:1
Bulk Micromanufacturing- ends

Wet vs. dry etching:

Parameters Dry etching Wet etching

Directionality Good for most materials Only with single crystal materials
(aspect ratio up to 100)

Production-automation Good Poor

Environmental impact Low High
Masking film adherence Not as critical Very critical
Selectivity Poor Very good
Materials to be etched Only certain materials All
Process scale up Difficult Easy
Cleanliness Conditionally clean Good to very good
Critical dimensional control Very good (< 0.1 m) Poor
Equipment cost Expensive Less expensive
Typical etch rate Slow (0.1 m/min) to fast (6 Fast ( 1 m/min and up)
m/min)
Operational parameters Many Few
Control of etch rate Good in case of slow etch Difficult
Anisotropic Wet Etching
Anisotropic Wet Etching(contd…)
Anisotropic Wet Etching(contd…)
Anisotropic Wet Etching(contd…)
Anisotropic Wet Etching(contd…)
Additive Processes: Lift-Off

Evaporated Metals
Sharp Tips
.