Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-3

Geological Investigations for Civil Engineering Structures:

For designing any civil engineering structures, it is of utmost importance to assess the lithological
and structural behaviour of any rock or group of rocks in and around the area of interest. The
effects of these parameters significantly govern the suitability for construction of the civil structures
like dams, tunnels, bridges and highways. It must be remembered that the parameters of geological
investigations are not uniform for different civil structures.

In the present scenario of urbanisation and development taking place in real estates, proper
geological investigation must be carried out for safe, stable and durable civil structures. The
geological investigations particularly include the detailed study of rocks and different types of
structures like folds, faults and joints present in the area. Besides these, aspects related to
slope, topographic features and groundwater conditions are also investigated for site selection.

Geological Investigations for Dams and Reservoirs:

Dam is a structure which arrests the water flow across the streams
or nallah. Dams are constructed to store water for irrigation,
electricity generation, water supply for cities and to control
floods. Reservoir is an integral part of any dam which refers to the
basin type of structure impounding water in upstream side.
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-4
Crest: The transverse part of a dam which is constructed
perpendicular to the flow of stream is known as crest. The width and
length of the crest is governed by the momentum of water, slope and
width of streams. The dimension of the crest determines the cost of
the dam.
Axis of a Dam: An imaginary line which runs perpendicular to the
crest and along the length of the dam is known as axis of dam. The
axis of dam is used to classify dams.

Wing Wall: The wall which is longitudinal and parallel to the stream/river is called wing
wall. The wing wall protects the side erosion and scouring effects.

Toe and Heel: The toe of the dam is a downstream edge of the dam base, while the heel
is an upstream edge of the dam-base.

Abutment: These are sloping sides of river valley upon which the sides of the dam are
keyed.

Spillway: The structural opening, made along the side of a dam to drain off surplus water
to downstream is known as spillway. They must be constructed on safe foundation.

Sluice: The opening in the dam near ground level is called sluice. It is useful in clearing
the silt of the reservoir.
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TYPES OF DAMS:

Dams are commonly made up of concrete, depending upon the geology of

the area. Dams of different types may be constructed across river valleys and
are described below:
Gravity Dam: It is also known as concrete dam. It is constructed from
concrete or stone masonry and designed to hold back water by primarily
using the weight of the material alone to resist the horizontal pressure of Gravity Dam
water pushing against it. The foundation rock of the dam should be very
strong so that the load of the dam may be borne by the rock. Example:
Bhakra dam (Himachal Pradesh), Asia’s second tallest dam (Height: 207.26
m).

Arch Dam: In this dam, the length of axis is curved and less than the than
the height of the dam. The arch-shaped structure is made of concrete, with
its convex side facing upstream. The thrust of water in the reservoir is
transmitted to the walls of river valley on either side of the dam. Arch dams
are constructed when valley walls are quite strong. The areas having a
Arch Dam
steeper slope in hilly region are suitable for construction of such types of
dam. Example: Idduki Dam (Kerela)
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-4

Masonry Dam: The dam which is constructed from bricks, boulders and
stones, is known as masonry dam. In this dam, the materials are used in
such a way that permeability is totally negligible. Example: Srisailam dam
in Andhra Pradesh.
Buttress Dam: The dam is characterized by a series of girders and
concrete panels parallel to the flow at some suitable intervals. The Masonry Dam
buttresses are constructed at the downstream side to support an upstream
deck. The foundation rocks should be quite strong.
Earth Dam: These are made with clay, silt and alluvial materials that are
available in the river valleys and adjoining areas of the proposed site of
construction. These dams can be constructed on earth or poor rocks.
Rock-fill Dam: The dam has a trapezoidal shape and filled up with gravel,
pebbles and boulders. This type of dam is constructed in high seismic
zones. Buttress Dam

Earth Dam
Rock- fill Dam
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-4

Geological Factors Influencing Site Selection:

•Compactness of foundation rock

•Bearing capacity of foundation rock
•Geological structures
•Attitude of beds
•Thickness of overburden
•Width of river valley

Compactness of Foundation Rock:

Any of the igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rock may be present at the dam site. The
compactness of a rock depends upon its mineral composition, hardness, homogeneity and
massiveness. The compactness of rocks like quartzite, granite and basalt is more than sandstone,
shale and limestone, and therefore, the area characterised with massive quartzite is more suitable.
Although limestones, dolomites and marbles are soluble rocks, they also are strong enough to support
the weight of a dam if massive in nature. However, if solution channels and caverns are present, these
may require grouting to check leakage.

Bearing Capacity:
Bearing capacity of a rock is the load that can be withheld by any rock without failure. It depends upon
the cohesive forces among grains of the rock and its hardness. Quartzite has the largest bearing
capacity amongst different rocks.
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-4
Geological Structures:

It is one of the most important parameter for site selection of dams. The rocks in the
area of interest should be free from fault and joints. The study of drainage from
toposheet, satellite images and field investigations are carried out to identify the
location and magnitude of fault, fold and joints. The presence of such weak zones
at major scales is not considered as suitable site for the construction of a dam and
a reservoir. The suitability of different folded and faulted conditions are described
below: Suitable
Most suitable Not suitable

Folded Region: The limbs of fold may be

treated as dipping beds or strata of the site
selected for the construction of a dam. The
upstream limb forms the most suitable place,
followed by crest of folded region. The
downstream limb of a fold should not be
considered for construction of a dam. Suitability of dams at upstream, crest and
downstream side.
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-4

Faulted Region: The area with faults is not suitable for

construction of a dam as the bearing capacity of foundation rock
is reduced drastically. Also, the area becomes earthquake prone
if the faults are reactivated. Furthermore, faults accelerate the
seepage of water and in turn dams becomes unsafe. However, if
the situation demands to construct a dam, the area may be
prioritized as follows:

Case-1: If a fault plane is in the upstream side, and the beds also
dips towards upstream side then this site may be considered. Suitability of dams in faulted region
However, the faulted plane should be sealed so that the dam is crest and downstream side.
safe.
Case-2: If a fault plane is in the upstream side, but the beds dips
towards downstream side then this site is not suitable and
construction of dam must be avoided.
Case-3: If the fault occurs in the downstream side then the site
may be considered as there is no threat for the construction of the
dam.
 Module-7: Geological Investigations Lesson-4

Attitude of Rock Formations/Beds:

The dip direction of the existing formation/beds is important for the stability of the dams. The dip
direction of beds when follows the direction of upstream side, it is supposed to be the most
suitable one. It is so because the resultant force will act opposite toe of the dam. Moreover, the
beds may have different magnitude of dips affecting the stability of dam. Different conditions of dip
direction along with magnitude and effects overburden, fold and faults are discussed below:

Condition-1: When the beds have dip amount of 100-450

towards upstream side, the resultant force of water would be
negated and the dam would be safe. When the beds have a
dip amount greater than 450 towards upstream side, the
resultant force of water would be negated but it would be a
little dangerous as compared to previous condition.
When the dip of beds is towards upstream side

Condition-2: When the beds have a dip amount of 10 0-450 towards

downstream side, the resultant force of water would be accelerated
and the dam would be unsafe. When the beds have a dip amount
greater than 450 towards downstream side, the resultant force of
water would be more accelerated and the dam would be devastating.

When dip of beds is towards

downstream side
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Condition-3: When the beds have vertical

disposition, which are rarely found, the foundation
remains water tight and the dam will not be
subjected to uplift pressure created by the dam.

When dip of beds is vertical

Thickness of Overburden:

Thickness of loose sediments or debris, below which hard or consolidated rock formation exists is
known as overburden. Thickness of overburden can be estimated by electrical resistivity survey
and borehole drilling. Since the thickness of overburden affects the cost as well as stability of the
dam structures, it is essential to excavate and remove the overburden. Greater thickness of
overburden is not suitable for the construction of a dam.

Stream/River Condition:

A narrow river channel is the most suitable site for construction of a dam because it can be
blocked with a relatively small dam. The cost of the dam is proportional to the width of the stream.
Apart from it, the slope of stream bed should be gentle and free from meandering of the river.