PSYC62010 and PSYC60041 Neurosensory

Science

The Central Nervous system

Michael Pridgeon CSci

Clinical Scientist
Neurophysiology

Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust

 • Undertake a range of routine and advanced Neurophysiological
investigations
Michael Pridgeon
• EEG, EP, NCS, Ambulatory EEG, Telemetry EEG (in-vasive, Non-
Clinical Scientist Invasive) and Theatre monitoring, Pure tone audiometry, MSLT,
MWT, PSG sleep tests
HSST
• Experience in MEG spontaneous and EP studies, ERG studies, QEEG
MSc. Clinical Physiology analysis, Pulse oximetry
(Neurophysiology)
• Lead scientist in intra-operative monitoring: Brain and spinal cord
BSc Clinical Physiology (Neurophysiology) mapping/monitoring in tumour, deformity and epilepsy surgery,
BAEP/VII nerve monitoring for MVD, Deep brain stimulation for
Parkinson’s disease, dystonia and essential tremor, functional
BSc Anatomy & Human Biology
mapping in selective dorsal rhizotomy for spasticity and neurogenic
bladder, language mapping during epilepsy surgery, visual cortex
20 years in Neurophysiology mapping and monitoring, functional surgery for chronic neuropathic
pain, cranial nerve monitoring for cavenoma
Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust,
Liverpool • MSc project: Can the Theta / Alpha QEEG index be used to identify
normal / abnormal EEGs in patients screened with 6CIT for cognitive
Chartered Scientist impairment?

Registered Clinical Scientist • Interest in QEEG, role of EPs in theatre monitoring, DBS, TMS

• HSST interests: EEG/SSEP quantitative analysis for chronic pain in

spinal cord injury, local field potentials and functional bladder
mapping/monitoring
 Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lecture it is expected that you will be able to:

– Describe the central nervous system in terms of the brain and spinal cord

– Discuss the essential structures and functions of the central nervous

system
Neuro-anatomy objectives:
•Types of neurones

•Cerebral hemisphere topography

•Basal ganglia / deep brain nuclei

•Thalamus

•Functional anatomy of the spinal

cord

•Ascending and descending tracts

 Nervous system
Central nervous system* Peripheral nervous system
Neurone

•Basic structural & functional unit of the

nervous system

•1010 neurones estimated to make up the

human nervous system

•Function to send and receive neuro-

chemical information

•Specialised cell connected by neuro-

chemical junctions called synapes

•Neurotransmitters stored in synaptic vesicles

are released into the synapse

•Stimulate post synaptic receptors

Action potential
Internal charge of axon changes becoming
more positive stimulates voltage gated Na +
channels to open resulting in a net
movement of ions Action potential

M e m b r a n e p t e n t i a l (m V )
50
Ionic net movement from –70 mV to +45 mV 40
30
generates action potential 20
10
0
-10
-20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112
At +45 mV threshold level repolarisation -30
-40
occurs -50
-60 Rest -70
-70 mV
-80
Na+ and K+ channels close -90
-100
Active transport using a Na + / K+ ion pump
Time (msec)
removes the extra Na+ ions from the axon
and recovers the K+ ions from outside the
axon

ATP energy dependent

The Axon repolarises to rest –95 mV and a
refractory period results until the axon
recovers to –70 mV
 Neurone classification
• Pyramidal – CNS

• Sensory neurones – PNS

• Motor neurones - PNS

• Inter neurone – CNS & PNS

 Sensory neurone
• Sensory neurons are neurons responsible for
converting various external stimuli that come from the
environment into corresponding internal stimuli.

• They are activated by sensory input, and send

projections to other elements of the nervous system,
ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain
or spinal cord

• Sensory neurons are activated by physical modalities

such as visible light, sound, heat, physical contact, etc.,
or by chemical signals for example in the case of smell
or taste

• The central nervous system is the destination to which

sensory neurons transmit their action potentials

• At the molecular level, sensory receptors located on

the cell membrane of sensory neurons are responsible
for the conversion of stimuli into electrical impulses

• The type of receptor employed by a given sensory

neuron determines the type of stimulus it will be
sensitive to. For example, neurons containing
mechanoreceptors are sensitive to tactile stimuli, while
olfactory receptors make a cell sensitive to odors

• Sensory neurone cell bodies outside CNS referred to as

a ganglion

• Two axons
• Unipolar – no dendrites from soma
 Motor neurone
• Located in the central nervous system
(CNS) and project their axons the
peripheral nervous system to directly
or indirectly control muscles

• Efferent nerves or effector neurons,

that generate action potentials that
flow from the spinal cord to the
muscles to produce (effect)
movement

• Single axon
• Multipolar
 Pyramidal neurones
• Pyramidal neurones have dense proximal dendrites

• Traverse the multilayered cortex

• Pyramidal neurons have been shown to have active

membrane regions; Soma and dendritic “hot-spots”

• Calcium channels in the proximal dendrites regulate

depolarisation

• Calcium ion entry into the neurone leads to prolonged

depolarisation and increased action potentials

• Followed by hyperpolarising inhibition

• The dense dentritic connections are interconnected

allowing excitation to easily spread across the entire
network as neurones are recruited leading to a
synchronisation of the neuronal network

• Pyramidal neurones are also found throughout the

hippocampus and amygdala
 Glial cells

•Ancillary roles
•Different types

•Astrocytes* transfer material from vascular system to

neural tissue blood brain barrier by forming a
selectively permeable barrier

•Oligdendrocytes (CNS)* and Schwann cells (PNS)

mylinate axons

•Microglial cells* protect the nervous system as

phagocytes

•Ependyma cells* are epithelial microglial cells that

line the ventricles and cover the chorid plexus

•Out number neurones

 Neuralation
• Fourth week of development

• Neural folds become apposed and fuse

together

• Neural groove is sealed off forming a

neural tube
• Fusion of the tube begins in the middle

• Progresses towards the cranial and caudal

ends

• Progression of closure is more rapid

towards the cranial end

• Cranial end once midline is fused is

known as the anterior neuropore and the
caudal end the posterior neuropore
 Failure to fuse Neuropores

• Anencephaly occurs when

the anterior neuropore
fails to close

• Spina bifida occurs when

the posterior neuropore
fails to close
 Neuralation
• Fourth week of development

• Neural folds become apposed and fuse

together

• Neural groove is sealed off forming a neural

tube

• Fusion of the tube begins in the middle

• Progresses towards the cranial and caudal ends

• Progression of closure is more rapid towards

the cranial end

• Cranial end once midline is fused is known as

the anterior neuropore and the caudal end the
posterior neuropore
 Development of the brain vesicles

• The region of the neural tube

cranial to the 4th pair of somites
will under go enormous growth,
distortion, expansion, flexion
and cellular differentiation
• Prosencephalon
• The neuroepithelium wall (forebrain)
thickens
• Mesencephalon
(midbrain)
• Expand rostrally by the 5th week
of development into the • Rhombencephalon
primary brain vesicles (hindbrain)

• Caudal portion forms

spinal cord
 Secondary brain vesicles
• Seventh week further
differentiation occurs

• Growth and expansion occurs

• Telencephalon and
• Primary brain vesicles go Diencephalon form
under flexion from Prosencephalon

• Cervical flexure between brain • Mesencephalon

remains a primary
and spinal cord
brain vesicle

• Expand to form secondary • Metencephalon and

brain vesicles Myelencephalon form
from
Rhombencephalon
 Primitive brain formation
• Telencephalon develops into cerebral hemispheres

• Diencephalon develops into thalamus and hypothalamus

• Mesencephalon develops into midbrain

• Metencephalon develops into pons and cerebellum

• Myelencephalon develops into medulla oblongata

 Neuronal migration
• Neuroblast cells form clusters that orient
themselves by cell adhesion located either in
the extracellular matrix or on the surface of
other cells

• Neuroblast clusters will form deep brain

nuclei

• Other neuroblast cells begin a migration

pattern by climbing along glial cells of a
particular type, known as radial glial cells.
The migrating neurons use the glial cells as
highways and are pulled along them by the
affinities between the neurons’ own
adhesion molecules and those of the glial
cells

• However, one-third of the neuroblasts do not

take this radial migration route, instead they
follow a horizontal route
 
 Developing Cortex
Telencephalon:

• The first neuroblast cells that migrate from

the venrtricular zone are destined to form a
layer called the cortical subplate, which
disappears in a later phase of development

• Neuroblasts that cross through this subplate

form a new layer called the cortical plate.

• The first cells to reach the cortical plate form

layer VI in the cortex; next come the cells
that form layer V, then layer IV, and so on,
from the inside out

• As a result, the neurons that are born first

are located in the deepest layers of the
cortex, where as the younger ones are
located in the layers closer to the cortical
surface
 Developing Cortex
• The primitive cortex is smooth

• Growth proceeds increasing

surface area

• Cortex convolutes into gyri with

sulci grooves in between

• Prevents excessive cranial

expansion

• Produces discrete areas of cortex-

lobes
Mature brain
 Cerebral hemispheres
• Consists of superficial grey
matter convoluted into
gyri & sulci (Neocortex)

• Underlying white matter –

thalamo-cortical afferent
and efferent fibre tracts

• Deep grey mater- site of

basal ganglia
 The Neocortex
• Derived from neuronal migration of • Necessary for conscious awareness,
Telencephalon thought memory & intellect
• The cerebral cortex is a thin layer of cells • All sensory information is consciously
about 1.5 to 4 mm thick perceived and interpreted
• Site where the motor system is initiated
• The cerebral cortex contains about 15 -25
and actions conceived
billion neurons that form the superficial
layer of the cerebral hemispheres • Allows spatial recognition of the
environment
• Generally recognized as consisting of 6
layers that make up the Neocortex
• Neocortex convoluted into gyri and sulci
to increase neocortex surface area
• Extracellular & intracellular field
potentials from the Neocortex can be
recorded (EEG, EP )
 6 layers of Neocortex
• Layer I: Few neurone cell bodies this layer contains
many dentritic and axonal processes in synaptic
interaction

• Layer II: Inter-neurone allowing complex intra-cortical

connections

• Layer III: Neurones of varying size that form association

and commissural fibres

• Layer IV: Site of termination of afferent fibres from

specific thalamic nuclei

• Layer V: Origin of neuronal tracts going to specific sub

cortical targets linking basal ganglia, thalamus,
brainstem and spinal cord to cortex, in the frontal region
(frontal lobe) layer V becomes enlarged forming Betz
cells that project into the Pyramidal tract

• Layer VI: Neurones that form association and projection

tracts
 Physiology of the cortex

• Pyramidal cells traversing the multilayered neocortex are glutamatergic and are
excitatory

• Surrounding the pyramidal cells are inhibitory interneuron’s which are GABAergic

• Project locally synapsing with local pyramidal cells forming an excitatory /

inhibitory neuronal network

• Inhibitory interneuron’s receive direct thalamocortical innervations resulting in

feed-forward inhibition

• Activation of pyramidal cells by depolarisation generates an excitatory post

synaptic potential (EPSP) which spreads between pyramidal cells as an excitatory
field

• Inhibitory interneuron’s locally become hyperpolarised and generate an inhibitory

post synaptic potential (IPSP)
 Neuronal activity summary
Excitatory
• Action potential travels along an axon
reaches an excitatory synapse
depolarisation of the postsynaptic
membrane results
• Pyramidal neurones
• Excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP)
• Neurotransmitters: Acetycholine,
Glutamate
Inhibitory
• Action potential travels along an axon
reaches an inhibitory synapse
hyperpolarisation of the postsynaptic
membrane results
• Horizontal interneurones
• Inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP)
• Neurotransmitters: Dopamine, GABA
 Physiology of the cortex
• The distribution of EPSP and IPSP and the delay between dentritic depolarisation and
synaptic depolarisation elicits an oscillation predicted by Freeman to be 40+ Hz
(brainstem – thalamus – cortex base rhythm)

• Synchronisation (sleep) and desynchronization (awake) of the cortex allows for

different networks and feedback loops to develop

• Thalamocortical feedback loops between brainstem –thalamus-cortex driven by

excitation and inhibition are involved generating oscillations across a range of
frequencies greater or less than Freeman’s predicted 40+Hz

• Combined with feed-forward inhibition mechanisms driven by inter-neurones allows

for a wide range of oscillating frequencies ranging from 0.2 Hz to 80 Hz to be
generated

• Further local interactions between cortical and subcortical networks allows specific
oscillating frequencies to be dominant under certain conditions for example alpha
activity (8-13 Hz) when the eyes are closed

• Oscillating frequencies measured using an Electroencephalogram (EEG)

 Main Sulci & Fissures
• The surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres
contain many fissures and sulci that separate the
frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes
from each other and the insula

• The lateral cerebral fissure (Sylvian fissure)

separates the temporal lobe from the frontal
and parietal lobes

• The insula, a portion of cortex that did not grow

much during development, lies deep within the
fissure ,the circular sulcus surrounds the insula
and separates it from the adjacent frontal,
parietal, and temporal lobes

• The hemispheres are separated by a deep

median fissure, the longitudinal cerebral fissure

• The central sulcus (the fissure of Rolando) arises

about the middle of the hemisphere, and
separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe

• The parieto-occipital fissure separates the

parietal lobe from the occipital lobe
 Lobes
• The neocortex is divided
into 4 lobes:

• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Occipital
 Frontal Lobe
• Frontal lobe lies anterior to the central sulcus
• The frontal lobe is the area of the brain
responsible for higher cognitive functions

– Problem solving
– Spontaneity
– Memory
– Language
– Motivation
– Judgment
– impulse control
– Social and sexual behavior

• Primary motor area

 Frontal lobe
• Pre-frontal region of Frontal lobe
• Brodmann’s areas 8, 9, 10 and 11

• The prefrontal cortex is involved with intellect, complex

learning, and personality

– Adaptation of personality to events and experiences

– Foresight and imagination
– Sense of self

• Mood and personality are mediated through the prefrontal

cortex
• Communicates with the limbic system located within the
temporal lobe
• This part of the frontal lobe is the center of higher cognitive
and emotional functions
 Frontal lobe
• Pre-central gyrus
• Primary motor cortex
• Brodmann’s area 4
 Primary motor cortex
• Within the primary motor cortex on the
precentral gyrus the contralateral half of the
body is represented as a somatopic
homunculus of the motor system

• The representation of the body is inverted

• Head is located in the most inferior part of the

gyrus , the trunk, shoulders, arms are located
superior and the lower limbs represented on
the medial surface

• The area of cortex devoted to a particular

body part represents the degree of movement
not size producing a disproportionate
homunculus

• Responsible for control of voluntary , skilled

movements of the skeletal muscles
 Motor pathway
• 30% of corticospinal and corticobulbar
fibres that make up the pyramidal tract
originate from the primary motor cortex

• 3% originate from the enlarged layer V of

the neocortex of the frontal lobe (Betz
cells)

• The primary motor cortex receives

afferent information from subcortical
regions (ventral lateral nucleus of
thalamus, globus pallidus of the basal
ganglia and dentate nucleus of
cerebellum)
 Pre-motor cortex
• Anterior to the primary motor cortex is the
premotor cortex, supplementary motor cortex
and mirror motor areas

• Brodmann’s area 6

• Consists of the lateral surface of the posterior

portions of superior, middle and inferior frontal
gyri

• Responsible for repetitive motions of learned

motor skills, coordination of groups of muscles,

• The medial surface forms the supplementary

motor cortex

• Responsible for control of posture

 Pre-motor cortex

• Communicates with the primary motor cortex via association

fibre tracts contributing to the corticospinal and
corticobulbar fibre tracts

• Afferent input is from the ventral anterior nucleus of

thalamus, globus pallidus of basal ganglia and substantia nigra
of the midbrain
 Frontal lobe
• Anterior to the premotor area on the lateral surface
is the frontal eye field

• Located on the middle frontal gyrus

• Brodmann’s area 8

• Controls scanning movement of the eyes

 Frontal lobe
• Broca’s area

• Motor speech area

• Located on the inferior frontal gyrus of the

dominant hemisphere

• On average this is the left hemisphere

• Brodmann’s areas 44 and 45

• Broca’s area is where we formulate speech and

the area of the brain that sends motor
instructions to the motor cortex
 Frontal lobe
• Injury to Broca’s area can cause difficulty
in speaking the individual may know what
words he or she wishes to speak, but will
be unable to do so

• Extensive interconnections to the

ipsilateral regions of the temporal, parietal
and occipital lobes which are involved in
language function
 Parietal Lobe
• Parietal lobe lies posterior to the
central sulcus, behind the frontal lobe

– Principle sensory area

– Touch, smell, and taste
– Sensory and spatial awareness (proprioception)
– Eye-hand co-ordination and arm movement

• The parietal lobe also contains a

specialized area called Wernicke’s
area that is responsible for matching
written words with the sound of
spoken speech

• Postcentral gyrus is the site of the

somatosensory cortex
 Somatosensory Cortex
• Post-central gyrus
• Somatosensory cortex
• Brodmann’s areas 1, 2 & 3
 Somatosensory cortex
• Within the somatosensory cortex on the
postcentral gyrus the contralateral half of
the body is represented as a somatopic
homunculus of the somatosensory system

• The representation of the body is inverted

• Head is located in the most inferior part of

the gyrus , the trunk, shoulders, arms are
located superior and the lower limbs
represented on the medial surface

• The area of cortex devoted to a particular

body part represents the richness of
sensory innervation
 Primary auditory area
• The primary auditory area The primary auditory area
• Perceives sounds that are
transmitted from the ear
• Located in the somatosensory cortex
• The auditory association area (purple
circle) is located in the temporal lobe
the part of the brain that is used to
recognize the sounds as speech,
music, or noise
• These two areas are interconnected
 Somatosensory pathway
• Site of termination of thalmocortical
3rd order afferent neurones that form
a chain carrying sensory information
from the peripheral system to the
brain

• Thalamic origin of these neurones is

ventral posterior nucleus

• Receives information from:

– Medial lemniscus pathway (fine touch &

proprioception)
– Spinal lemniscus pathway (course touch
& pressure)
– Spinothalamic tracts (pain &
temperature)
– Trigeminothalamic tracts (head
sensation)
 Parietal lobe
• The gustatory complex (green
circle) is the part of the
somatosensory cortex (purple
area) is responsible for taste

• Posterior to the post central gyrus

lies the association cortex and is
involved in conscious awareness
of sensation
 Temporal Lobe
• The temporal lobe lies beneath the frontal and parietal
lobes beneath lateral fissure

• Primary auditory cortex (transverse temporal gyrus)

• Receives afferent fibres from medial geniculate nucleus

of thalamus

• Adjacent lies auditory association cortex

• The temporal lobe plays a role in emotions, and is also
responsible for smelling, tasting, perception, memory,
understanding music, aggressiveness, cognition and
sexual behavior

• Limbic system

• The temporal lobe also contains the language area of

the brain (Wernicke’s area )
 Temporal lobe
• The auditory association area is located
The auditory association area
on the temporal lobe
• Brodmann’s area 41 & 42
• Recognition of sounds
– Speech
– Music
– noise

• Interconnected with the Primary

auditory cortex which perceives sounds
that are transmitted from the ear and
Wernicke’s area for speech recognition
 Temporal lobe
• Wernicke’s area is a specialized portion of Auditory Association Area
the parietal lobe that recognizes and
understands written and spoken language

• Wernicke’s area surrounds the auditory

association area located at Brodmann’s
area 41 & 42

• Damage to this part of the brain can

result in someone hearing speech, but
not understanding it

Wernicke’s Area
 Occipital Lobe
• The occipital lobe lies behind the parietal
and temporal lobes

• Calcarine sulcus marks the location of the

primary visual cortex

• Brodmann’s area 17

• surrounded by visual association cortex

• Receives afferent fibres from lateral

geniculate nucleus of thalamus (visual
pathway)
 Occipital lobe
• Perceive vision

• Visual processing and visual

association

• Involved in eye movement

 White Matter
• The white matter of the adult cerebral
hemisphere contains myelinated nerve
fibers of many sizes as well as neuroglial
cells

• Transverse (commissural) fibres

interconnect the two cerebral hemispheres

– Corpus callosum
– Anterior commissure
– Hyppocampal commissure
 Corpus Callosum
• The corpus callosum connects the two
hemispheres

• It is a large bundle of myelinated and

nonmyelinated fibers, that crosses the
longitudinal cerebral fissure and interconnects
the hemispheres

• The corpus callosum serves to integrate the

activity of the two hemispheres and permits
them to communicate with each other

• Most parts of the cerebral cortex are connected

with their counterparts in the opposite
hemisphere by axons that run in the corpus
callosum
 Projection white matter fibres
• Projection fibres connect the cerebral
cortex with lower portions of the brain or
the spinal cord
• Consist of afferent and efferent fibres
• Distributed radially forming the corona
radiata and converge downwards towards
the brainstem
• Concentrate in to a narrow area known as
the internal capsule between thalamus
and basal ganglia (caudate nucleus)
• Forms anterior limb, genu, posterior limb and
retrolenticular region
• Anterior limb forms connections with mediodorsal
nucleus of thalamus and prefrontal cortex and the
Pons and Basal ganglia
• Posterior limb contains corticospinal and
corticobulbar tracts and thalamocortical fibres on
route from thalamus to somatosensory cortex,
thalamus to frontal lobe
• Retrolenticular region contains thalamocortical
fibres running from the medial and lateral
geniculate nuclei of thalamus on route to the visual
and auditory corti
 Basal ganglia
• The term basal ganglia are masses of gray
matter deep within the cerebral hemispheres

• The term is debatable because these masses are

nuclei rather than ganglia

• Anatomically, the basal ganglia include the

caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus
pallidus together they are called the corpus
straitum

• The Putmen and globus pallidus collectively is

called the Lentiform nuclei

• Functionally, the basal ganglia and their

interconnections and neurotransmitters form
the extrapyramidal system
Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia
 Components of the Basal Ganglia
• Input Nuclei
– Corpus Striatum (Striatum)
• Caudate
• Putamen
• Output Nuclei
– Globus Pallidus Interna
– Substantia Nigra Pars Reticulata (Mid
brain)
• Intermediate Nuclei
– Globus Pallidus Externa
– Subthalamic Nucleus
– Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta (Mid
brain)
 Functions of the basal ganglia
• Influences motor instructions sent to
the periphery by modifying ongoing
activity in motor pathways
• Has a role in stabilising the large and
complicated systems that control
movement
• Monitor and coordinate slow and
sustained contractions, especially
those related to posture and support
• Helps to direct action and interpret
sensory information

• Inhibit muscle tone (proper tone – • Regulate attention and cognition

balance the excitatory and inhibitory
inputs to motor neurons that innervate • Control timing and switching
skeletal muscle)
• Motor planning and learning
• Select and maintain purposeful motor
activity while suppressing unwanted
patterns of movement
 Functions of the Basal ganglia
• Motor Loop
– Regulation of upper motor neurons
– Necessary for normal initiation

• Direct Pathway
– Overall Excitatory

• Indirect Pathway
– Overall Inhibitory
 Direct pathway
• Inhibition of internal GP so
no longer keeps thalamus
from exciting cortex

• Facilitate the ongoing action

• Overall Excitatory by
disinhibiting the upper
motor neurons in the cortex
(promotes movement)
 Indirect pathway
• Causes subthalamus to
activate internal GP,
suppressing thalamic
activation

• Suppressing unwanted
movements
 Functions of the Basal Ganglia
• Non-Motor Loops

– Executive/Prefrontal Loop
– Limbic Loop (Amygdala)
– Oculomotor Loop
 Executive/Prefrontal Loop
• Receives information from the
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex about
behavior that is being planned for a
particular situation

• In turn, the basal ganglia affect

activity in the frontal cortex through a
series of neural projections that
ultimately go back up to the same
cortical areas from which they
received the initial input

• This circuit enables the basal ganglia

to transform and amplify the pattern
of neural firing in the frontal cortex
that is associated with adaptive, or
appropriate, behaviors, while
suppressing those that are less
adaptive

• The neurotransmitter dopamine plays

a critical role in the basal ganglia in
determining, as a result of
experience
 Functions of the Basal Ganglia
 Limbic loop: involves
cingulate cortex and nucleus
accumbens

 Oculomotor loop: involves

caudate nucleus and superior
colliculus (responsible for
eliciting rapid eye
movements called saccades)
 Neuro networks and biofeedback of deep
brain nuclei
• Range complex neuro-networks and biofeedback
mechanisms that involve deep brain nuclei
pathways

• Behavioural and cognitive avoidance (d) –

interactions between Striatum (Basal ganglia),
Amygdala (limbic system) and higher cortical
areas

• Anatomically, the amygdala and more particularly,

its central and medial nuclei have also been
classified as a part of the basal ganglia due to
their involvement in many of these newly
discovered neuro-networks

• Increased threat attention and hyper vigilance,

learned safety behaviour, adaptive control,
heightened reactivity to threat uncertainty
•
 Thalamus
• Thalamus means “inner room” in
Greek, as it sits deep in the brain at
the top of the brainstem
• The thalamus is called the gateway to
the cerebral cortex, as nearly all
sensory inputs pass through it to the
higher levels of the brain

• Rostral to the midbrain

 Thalamus
• Largest component of
diencephalon

• Situated between brainstem

and cerebral hemispheres

• 3 nuclear masses anterior,

medial and lateral
 Thalamus
• Relay station for neuronal pathways
(afferent and efferent)

• Thalamic nuclei have a motor or sensory

function

• Specific conect via a specific group of

pathways forming a system

• Non specific nuclei connect with

association areas of cortex and limbic
system or have a wide area of the
thalamocortical connections
 Lateral thalamic nuclei
• Thalamic sensory homunculus
• Thalamic motor homunculus
 Brainstem
• Central Nervous system

• Brainstem lies on the basal

portion of the occipital bone

• Largely covered by the

Cerebellum

• Continuous with spinal cord at the

level of the foramen magnum
 Brain stem
• Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Midbrain
 Medulla oblongata
• Continuous with spinal cord

• Grey matter core surrounded by

mantle of white matter

• Afferent fibres go to thalamus on

route to cerebral cortex

• Efferent fibres go to spinal cord on

route to body and peripheral system
 Medulla oblongata
(Caudal region)

• Continuous with the spinal

cord

• Ventral horn of grey mater

becomes attenuated

• Dorsal horn of grey mater is

replaced by the Trigeminal
sensory nucleus
 Medulla oblongata

• Ascending afferent 1st order sensory neurones

travel up the spinal cord as the dorsal column
(fasiculi gracilis & cuneatus)

• 1st order neurones ascending have their cell

bodies in the dorsal root ganglia their central
processes have ascended ipsilaterally through
the spinal cord

• Dorsal columns synapse in two nuceli (nuceli

gracilis & cuneatus)

• Ascending afferent 2nd order neurones continue

up the Medulla oblongata
 Medulla oblongata

• Axons of 2nd order neurones pass

ventrally & medially as internal
arcuate fibres

• Decussate at the midline to form the

medial lemniscus tract

• Ascend through the rostral aspect of

the Medulla oblongata passing
medially to the pyramids (site of
efferent decussation)
 Medulla oblongata
• Additional afferent 2nd order
neurones pass from the sensory
portion of the Trigeminal nucleus to
form the Trigeminal-thalamic tract
 Medulla oblongata

• Efferent fibres pass caudally and

decussate at the Pyramids to
form the lateral corticospinal
tract

• Pyramids either side ventral

median fissure

• Site of 75-90 % decussation of

pyramidal system or corticospinal
tracts
 Medulla oblongata
• The rostral region of the dorsal surface will form
the floor of the 4th ventricle

• Caudal aspect of the floor of the 4th ventricle is

called the area postrema

• Absent blood brain barrier

• Area concerned with vomiting reflex to protect
the brain from harmful substances

• Lateral part lies the vestibular nuclei

• Receive afferent fibres from the vestibular

portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve

• Medial longitudinal fasiculus fibre tracts that

connect the vestibular nuclei with the cranial
nerve nuclei responsible for eye movement to
allow coordination and balance
 Pons
• Divided into dorsal and ventral
regions

• Dorsal part called tegmentum

• Ventral portion consists of

transverse pontocerebellar fibres
passing from scatterd pontine
nuclei to cerebellum via middle
cerebellar peduncle
 Pons
Ascending fibre tracts Descending fibre tracts
• Medial lemniscus, spinal lemniscus • Corticospinal fibres are grouped
and trigeminothalamic pathways together as bundles running
are displaced dorsally by intervening longitudinally between the
transverse pontocerebellar fibres fasicles of transverse
pontocerebellar fibres
• Medial lemniscus pathway is
displaced by 20 degrees marking
the boundary between the dorsal
and ventral portions of the Pons
 Midbrain
• Dorsal part Tectum consisting of
superior and inferior colliculi

• Ventral part Tegmentum bounded

by Crus cerebri massive cerebral
fibres

• Divided into tectum and

tegmentum by cerebral
aqueduct-ventricular system
 Reticular formation
• Complex matrix of neurones
• Diffuse, poorly differentiated brainstem
nuclei
• Extends throughout the brainstem

Modulates:

• Pain
• Muscle tone and reflexes
• Autonomic functions e.g. respiration, blood
pressure, cardiac function, Arousal,
awareness and attention

• Receives both afferent and efferent

connections
• Forms both respiratory and cardiovascular
centres
 Reticular formation
• Reticular formation also sends fibres to the
intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus

• Project fibre tracts to the basal ganglia and to

the cerebral cortex

• EEG pace maker activates cerebral cortex

• Involved in the synchronisation of the cerebral

cortex mantle and activation of the cortex

• Illustrated during burst suppression of the EEG

 Cranial nerve nuclei
• Deep grey mater nuclei within the
brainstem

• Receive cranial nerve afferents

(sensory)

• Contain efferent cell bodies whose

axons leave the brainstem as cranial
nerves (motor)

• Combination (mixed)
 Cranial nerves
• 12 pairs of cranial nerves

• Two belong to the CNS (I, II)

• Consist of sensory neurones only

• Ten belong to the PNS &

Autonomic nervous system (III-
XII)

• Contain sensory, motor or mixed

nerve fibres
Cranial nerves
 Cranial nerves I-II
• I. Olfactory nerve sensory nerve
projecting to olfactory bulb for
olfaction

• II. Optic nerve sensory nerve

innervating retina (ganglion cells of
retina) for vision passes through optic
canal in skull

• Cranial nerves I & II don't originate

from brainstem cranial nerve nuclei

• Myelinated by Oligodendrocytes
rather than Schwann cells therefore
CNS rather than PNS

• Cranial nerves III-XII – Peripheral

nervous system covered in PNS
lecture
 Cranial nerves I-II
• I. Olfactory nerve: CNS
• II. Optic nerve: CNS

• Cranial nerves I & II don't originate

from brainstem cranial nerve nuclei

• Myelinated by Oligodendrocytes
rather than Schwann cells therefore
CNS rather than PNS
 Spinal cord (CNS)
Central nervous system* Peripheral nervous system
 Spinal cord
• Central nervous system

• Continuous with Medulla oblongata

brainstem

• Consists of a central core of grey

mater with Central canal running
along midline

• Surrounded by a mantle of white

matter

• Paired spinal nerves leave cord at

level of spinal segment
 Internal structure of Spinal cord
• Central core of grey matter (cell bodies) with
central canal down midline (spinal cord
ventricle – CSF)

• Grey matter core divided into a dorsal horn and

a ventral horn

• Dorsal horn (D) continuous with dorsal root

consists of afferent sensory fibres

• Sensory cell bodies lie out side the CNS in a

dorsal root ganglion or sensory root ganglion

• Ventral horn (V) continuous with ventral root

consists of efferent motor fibres on route to
peripheral nervous system D
PNS
CNS
• Motor neurone cell bodies are within the CNS
V
located within the ventral horn
Spinal cord cross section
 Lateral horn of grey matter core
• Located between dorsal and ventral horns at
level T1-L2

• Consists of cell bodies of preganglionic

sympathetic neurones
 White matter mantle
• Surrounds grey matter core

• Ascending fibre tracts of afferent

primary order sensory neurones
continuous with Medulla
oblongata (ascending fibres from
dorsal horn)

• Descending fibre tracts of

efferent lower motor neurones
on route from brain to peripheral
nervous system (descending
fibres from ventral horn)
 Ascending tracts
• Afferent fibres on a conscious (to brain)
and a subconscious level (spinal reflex)

• Forms dorsal columns on spinal cord on

route to fasiculus gracilis and cuneatus on
medulla oblongata

• Spinothalamic tract touch pain and

temperature

• Dorsal and ventral spinocerebellar tract

providing sensory information on muscle,
joint and tactile information
 Ascending chain
• Sensory receptors synapse with first order
neurones

• First order neurones form dorsal columns Third order

of spinal cord neurones

• Second order neurones Medulla

oblongata to thalamus + spinothalamic,
dorsal & ventral spinocerebellar tracts
(spinal cord to thalamus)

• Third order neurones: Thalamus to cortex Second order

neurones

First order
neurones
 Descending tracts
• Depolarisation of motor cortical pyramidal cells in the Motor Cortex
cortical layer

• Horizontal orientated axons of inter-neurones in the

cortical layer generate action potentials that are
conducted directly or relayed via inter-neurones to the Upper motor neurone
upper motor neurone

• Summate in the anterior horn (spinal cord) to produce

trans-synaptic activation of the spinal lower motor
neurones

• Direct propagation down lower motor neurone or

indirect propagation (not shown) via rubro-spinal,
tecto-spinal, vestibulo-spinal, and cerebello-spinal tracts Lower motor neurone
in the lateral and anterior part of the spinal cord Muscle

• Action potentials from axons of lower motor neurons

are transferred to the muscle fibres of the motor unit
via neuromuscular (NM) junctions

• The muscle response is evoked in the contralateral

target muscle
 Descending tracts
• Efferent fibres passing to peripheral nervous
system via spinal nerves

• Corticospinal tract controls discrete skilled

movements of distal extremeties, 75-90% of
fibres decussate at the level of the medulla
oblongata at the pyramids to form the lateral
corticospinal tract the remaining 10% form
ventral corticospinal tract

• Rubrospinal tract controls limb flexion

originating in the red nucleus of midbrain

• Tectospinal tract controls visual reflex responses

originates in superior colliculus of midbrain

• Vertibulospinal tract mediates excitation of limb

extensors originates in pons and medulla
oblongata
 Descending tracts continued

• Reticulospinal tract controls reflex activities,

muscle tone & vital functions originates from
reticular formation of brain stem
 Reflect
•Types of neurones

•Cerebral hemisphere topography

•Basal ganglia / deep brain nuclei

•Thalamus

•Brainstem (medulla oblongata, Pons and

Midbrain)

•Cranial nerves in the CNS

•Spinal cord

•Ascending and descending tracts

 Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lecture it is expected that you will be able to:

– Describe the central nervous system in terms of the spinal cord

– Describe the peripheral nervous system

– Discuss the essential structures and functions of the peripheral nervous

system
 Reading list
• Crossman, A. R. Neary, D. Neuroanatomy an illustrated colour text, 4th
Edition, 2010, Chruchill Livingstone

• Drake, R. Vogl, A. Mitchell, A. Gray’s Anatomy for students, 2009, Chruchill

Livingstone

• Kapit, W. Elson, L. The Anatomy Colouring book, 2001, Benjamin

Cummings

• Tortora, G.J. Principles of anatomy and physiology, 2006, John Wiley &
sons