Chapter 14

Geology, Minerals, and Mining

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
This presentation will help you understand:

• Mineral resources and

their contributions to
society
• Mining methods
• Social and
environmental impacts
of mining
• Sustainable use of
mineral resources

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Minerals and mining
• We extract raw minerals from beneath our planet’s
surface
- Turn them into products we use everyday
• Rock and resources from the lithosphere contribute to
our economies and lives
• Rock = a solid aggregation of minerals
• Mineral = a naturally occurring solid chemical
element or inorganic compound
- It has a crystal structure, specific chemical
composition, and distinct physical properties
Minerals are nonrenewable, so we need to be
aware of their finite and decreasing supplies
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY & MINERALOGY

• Economic mineralogy is the study of

minerals that are valuable for
manufacturing and trade.
• Public policy in the U.S. has encouraged
mining on public lands as a way of
boosting the economy and utilizing natural
resources.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Most economic minerals are metal ores (ores
are minerals with high concentrations of
metals).
• Metals are elements that easily give up an electron and thus
have a positive charge (cations).
- Metals consumed in the greatest quantity by world
industry (metric tons annually) are:
- Iron (740 million)
- Aluminum (40 million)
- Manganese (22.4 million)
- Copper (8 million)
- Chromium (8 million)
- Nickel (0.7 million)
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nonmetal Mineral Resources

• Sand and gravel production for road and building

construction make up the greatest volume and dollar value
of all nonmetal mineral resources. This includes brick and
concrete construction, paving, sandblasting and glass
production.
• Evaporites include halite (rock salt), gypsum, potash
• Sulfur deposits are mined mainly for sulfuric acid
production (industry, car batteries, some medicinal
products).
• Limestone is used to make concrete and building stone.
Pulverized, it is used to neutralize acidic soil.
• Soils

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Strategic metals and minerals are ones
that a country uses but cannot produce itself
• Wealthy industrial nations often stockpile
strategic resources, especially metals.
• Of the 80 industrial metals and minerals,
between one-third and one-half are
considered strategic resources.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Minerals are everywhere in our products

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
RESOURCE EXTRACTION

• Geologic resource extraction involves the physical

processes of mining and the physical or chemical
processes of separating minerals, metals, and other
geologic resources from ores or other materials.
• Ore - a rock in which a valuable or useful metal
occurs at a concentration high enough to make
mining it economically attractive

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

We obtain minerals by mining

• We obtain minerals through the process of mining

• Mining = in the broad sense, it is the extraction of any
resource that is nonrenewable
- We mine minerals, fossil fuels, and groundwater
• Mining = in relation to minerals, it is the systematic
removal of rock, soil, or other material to remove the
minerals of economic interest
• Because minerals occur in low concentrations,
concentrated sources must be found before mining

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

We extract minerals from ores
• Metal = an element that is lustrous, opaque, and
malleable and can conduct heat and electricity
• Ore = a mineral or grouping of minerals from which we
extract metals
• Economically valuable metals include copper, iron, lead,
gold, aluminum

Tantalite ore is mined, processed into tantalum,

and used in electronic devices
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
We process metals after mining ore

• Most minerals must be processed after mining

• After mining the ore, rock is crushed and the metals are
isolated by chemical or physical means
- The material is processed to purify the metal
• Alloy = a metal is mixed, melted, or fused with another
metal or nonmetal substance
- Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
• Smelting = heating ore beyond its melting point then
combining it with other metals or chemicals

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Processing minerals has costs

• Processing minerals has environmental costs

- Most methods are water- and energy-intensive
• Chemical reactions and heating to extract metals from
ores emit air pollution
• Tailings = ore left over after metals have been extracted
- Pollutes soil and water
- They may contain heavy metals or acids (cyanide,
sulfuric acid)
- Water evaporates from tailings ponds, which may
leach pollutants into the environment

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

We also mine nonmetallic minerals and fuels

• Nonmetallic minerals include sand, gravel, phosphates,

limestone, and gemstones
- $7 billion/year of sand and gravel are mined in the U.S.
- Phosphates provide fertilizer
- “Blood diamonds” are mined and sold to fund, prolong,
and intensify wars in Angola and other areas
• Substances are mined for fuel
- Uranium for nuclear power
- Coal, petroleum, natural gas are not minerals (they are
organic), but they are also extracted from the Earth

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Economically useful mineral resources

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Mining and Processing

• Extraction and separation

• Ore = rock with high concentration of valuable or useful
metal
• Must be economically feasible
- 1% Cu ore
- 0.0001% Au ore

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Mining

• Underground, tunnel mining is very dangerous due to:

- Gas
- Inhaling Particulate Matter
- Tunnel Collapse
• Placer mining
• Strip-mining or open-pit mining
• Tailings - surface waste deposits
• Groundwater contamination
• Spoil banks - acid and sediment runoff

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Implications of Resource Extraction
• Mining
- Placer Mining - Hydraulically washing out metals deposited in
streambed gravel.
- Destroys streambeds and fills water with suspended solids.
- Strip, Open Pit or Mountain Removal Mining
- Large scars on land surface.
- Tailings
- Toxic runoff
• Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCLRA) (1977)
requires better restoration of strip-mined lands, especially if the mined
land is classified as prime farmland.
- Difficult and expensive.
- Often more than $10,000.00 per hectare.
- 50% of US coal is strip mined.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mining methods and their impacts

• People in developing nations suffer war and exploitation

because of the developed world’s appetite for minerals
• In 2009, raw materials from mining gave $57 billion to
the U.S. economy
- After processing, minerals contributed $454 billion
- 28,000 Americans were directly employed for mining
• Large amounts of material are removed during mining
- Disturbing lots of land
• Different mining methods are used to extract minerals
- Economics determines which method to use

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Strip mining removes surface soil and rock
• Strip mining = layers of soil and rock are removed to
expose the resource
• Overburden = overlying soil and rock that is removed
by heavy machinery
- After extraction, each strip is refilled with the
overburden
• Used for coal, oil sands, sand, gravel
• Destroys natural communities over large areas and
triggers erosion
• Acid drainage = sulfide minerals form sulfuric acid
and flow into waterways

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Strip mining destroys the environment

Strip mining removes soil Discolored water is a sign of

acid drainage
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Environmental Effects of Mining

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
A mining method: subsurface mining
• Accesses deep pockets of a mineral through tunnels and
shafts
- The deepest mines are 2.5 mi
• Zinc, lead, nickel, tin, gold, diamonds, phosphate, salt,
coal
• The most dangerous form of mining
- Dynamite blasts, collapsed
tunnels
- Toxic fumes and coal dust
• Acid drainage, polluted
groundwater
- Sinkholes damage roads,
homes, etc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
A mining method: open pit mining
• Used with evenly distributed minerals
- Terraced so men and machines can move about
• Copper, iron, gold, diamonds, coal
• Quarries = open pits for clay, gravel, sand, stone
(limestone, granite, marble, slate)
• Huge amounts of rock are removed to get small
amounts of minerals
• Habitat loss, aesthetic degradation, acid drainage
• Abandoned pits fill with toxic water

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

One open pit mine
One Utah mine is 2.5 mi across and 0.75 mi deep; almost
half a million tons of ore and rock are removed each day

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

A mining method: placer mining
• Using running water, miners
sift through material in
riverbeds
- Coltan miners, California’s
Gold Rush of 1849
• Used for gold, gems
• Debris washed into streams
makes them uninhabitable for
wildlife
• Disturbs stream banks, causes
erosion
• Harms riparian plant
communities
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
A mining method: mountaintop removal
• Entire mountaintops are blasted off
- The waste is dumped into valleys
• For coal in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern U.S.
• Economically efficient
- “Valley filling” = dumping rock and debris into valleys
• Degrades and destroys vast areas
• Pollutes streams, deforests
areas, erosion, mudslides,
flash floods
An area the size of Delaware
has already been removed
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mountaintop removal is socially devastating

• Mine blasting cracks foundations and walls

• Floods and rock slides affect properties
• Overloaded coal trucks speed down rural roads
• Coal dust and contaminated water cause illness
• Local politicians do not help
• High-efficiency mining reduces the need for workers
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Heap-leach extraction is when large piles of crushed ore are
sprayed with a alkaline cyanide solution that percolates
through the pile to dissolve gold. The effluent is left behind in
ponds.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

A mining method: solution mining
• Solution mining (in-situ recovery) = resources in a deep
deposit are dissolved in a liquid and siphoned out
• Salts, lithium, boron, bromine, potash, copper, uranium
• Less environmental impact than other methods
- Less surface area is disturbed
- Acids, heavy metals, uranium can accidentally leak

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

A mining method: undersea mining
• We extract minerals (e.g., magnesium) from seawater
• Minerals are dredged from the ocean floor
- Sulfur, phosphate, calcium carbonate (for cement),
silica (insulation and glass), copper, zinc, silver, gold
• Manganese nodules = small, ball-shaped ores scattered
across the ocean floor
- Mining them is currently uneconomical
• Hydrothermal vents may have gold, silver, zinc
• Mining would destroy habitats and organisms and release
toxic metals that could enter the food chain

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Restoration of mined sites

• Governments in developed countries require companies

to reclaim (restore) surface-mined sites
- Other nations (e.g., Congo) have no regulations at all
• Reclamation aims to bring a site to a condition similar
to its pre-mining condition
- Remove structures, replace overburden, replant
vegetation
• The U.S. 1977 Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act mandates restoration
- Companies must post bonds to ensure restoration

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Restoration of mined sites
• Even on restored sites, impacts
may be severe and long-lasting
• Complex communities are
simplified
- Forests, wetlands, etc. are
replaced by grasses
• Essential symbioses are
eliminated and often not restored
• Water can be reclaimed
- Remove heavy metals
- pH is moderated

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The General Mining Act of 1872
• Encourages metal and mineral mining on federal land
- Any citizen or company can stake a claim on any
public land open to mining for $5 per acre
- The public gets no payment for any minerals found
• Once a person owns the land, that land can be developed
for any reason, having nothing to do with mining
• Supporters say it encourages a domestic industry that is
risky and provides essential products
• Critics say it gives land basically free to private interests
- Efforts to amend the act have failed in Congress

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Minerals are nonrenewable and scarce
• We must recover and recycle our limited supplies
• Once known reserves are mined, minerals will be gone
- For example, indium, used in LCD screens, might only
last 32 more years
- Gallium (for solar power) and platinum (fuel cells) are
also scarce
• Reserve estimates are uncertain
- New discoveries, technologies, consumption patterns,
and recycling affect mineral supplies
- As minerals become scarcer, demand and price rise

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Years remaining for selected minerals
• Scarcity increases prices
- Industries will spend more to reach further deposits

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Factors affecting how long deposits last
• Discovery of new reserves increases known reserves
- Minerals worth $900 billion were discovered in
Afghanistan in 2010
• New extraction technologies reach more minerals at less
expense
• Changing social and technological dynamics modify
demand in unpredictable ways
- Lithium batteries are replacing cadmium-nickel ones
• Changing consumption patterns affect how fast we
exploit reserves (e.g., a recession depresses demand)
• Recycling extends the lifetimes of minerals
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
We can use minerals sustainably
• Recycling addresses:
- Finite supplies
- Environmental damage
• 35% of metals were recycled in
2008 from U.S. municipal solid
waste
- 7 million tons
- Steel, iron, platinum, gold,
nickel, germanium, tin, and
chromium
- Reduces greenhouse gases by
25 million metric tons
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
CONSERVING GEOLOGIC RESOURCES

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Types of Geologic Resource
Conservation

• Recycling is common for

aluminum, platinum, gold,
silver, copper, lead
• Steel and iron recycling is
easily done at minimills
(photo to left). Cars also
contain platinum as a
catalytic converter
catalyst.
• Substituting new materials
(polymers, high-tech
alloys, glass cables, etc.)
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Recycling of Aluminum - A Big Success Story
- Aluminum must be extracted from bauxite by electrolysis.
This requires lots of energy!
- Recycling waste aluminum consumes one-
twentieth the energy of extraction from raw ore.
- Nearly two-thirds of all aluminum beverage cans in
US are recycled.
- It makes environmental and economic sense to
recycle aluminum. Everyone agrees!

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

We can recycle rare metals from e-waste
• Electronic waste (e-waste) from computers, printers, cell
phones, etc. is rapidly rising
• Recycling keeps hazardous wastes out of landfills while
conserving mineral resources
• 1.2 billion cell phones sold each year contain 200
chemicals and precious metals
- Phones can be refurbished and resold or dismantled
and their parts reused or recycled
- Only 10% of cell phones are recycled
• Recycling reduces demand for virgin ores and reduces
pressure on ecosystems
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Conclusion

• We depend on minerals and metals to make the products

we use
• Mineral resources are mined by various methods
- Contributing to material wealth
- But causing extensive environmental damage (habitat
loss, acid drainage, etc.)
• Restoration and regulations help minimize the
environmental and social impacts of mining
- Maximize recycling and sustainable use of minerals

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.