CHAPTER 4: MINING MINERALS

4.1 introduction

 Mining is the process of extracting valuable minerals or other geological

materials from the earth.
 A mineral is a valuable or useful naturally occurring substance in the ground. For
examples gold, diamond, coal, copper, oil, salt and gas.
Types of minerals
Minerals are classified into two categories:

1. Metallic minerals
2. Non-metallic minerals

1. Metallic minerals
Metallic minerals are Minerals that contain metallic elements.
Some common metallic minerals
Some common metallic minerals include:

a. Ferrous minerals: The term ferrous mineral refers to minerals that include iron.
Ferrous metallic minerals account for three-quarters of total metal mineral output.
For example, Iron ore, manganese, nickel, and chromites
b. Nonferrous minerals: Those minerals that comprise some other metal rather
than iron. They are commonly included gold, copper, silver, lead, tin, aluminum,
copper, etc.

2. Non-metallic minerals

Non-metallic minerals are minerals with no metal components. These include

phosphates, nitrates, potash, graphite, mica, precious stones, asbestos, sulphur,
salt, coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.
Exercise 4.1
1. Define terms "mining and mineral"
2. Explain the two types of minerals.
3. Name any three examples of non-metallic

4.2 occurrence of metallic minerals in the earth’s crust

The occurrence of metallic minerals in the Earth's crust:

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 1. Lodes: These are large masses of metallic minerals that have solidified in the
Earth's crust. They form as a result of the cooling of molten magma. Examples
of metallic minerals found in lodes include zinc, silver, and copper.
2. Veins: Veins are thin layers of metallic minerals that have solidified in the joints
of the Earth's crust. They also form through the cooling and solidification of
molten magma.

3. Reefs: When lodes and veins are exposed to the surface of the Earth due to
erosion, they are called reefs. Reefs are the portions of lodes or veins that
become visible and accessible on the Earth's surface.
4. Layers or beds: Some metallic minerals are formed as layers or beds as a
result of the compression of accumulated organic or inorganic materials.
Examples include coal and halite (rock salt).
5. Alluvial (placer) deposits: These deposits are formed when particles of
metallic minerals are transported by rivers and settle at the base of slopes. The
erosion of rocks containing metallic minerals releases these particles, which are
carried by the flowing water. Over time, they accumulate in specific areas, such
as riverbeds or floodplains, creating alluvial or placer deposits.

Exercise 4.2
1. Explain how metallic minerals occur in the earth's crust.
2. Give examples of minerals that occur in lodes.
3. Give examples of minerals that occur in layers.
4.3. Factors that influence mining of minerals

1. The size of the deposit: are extracted faster and small-sized deposits are left
because they are uneconomical or they are slowly extracted.
2. Mining methods: A mineral that requires open cast mining will be mined
regardless of the size of the deposit, but a mineral that requires underground
mining will be extracted only if the deposit is large, or if the mineral is of high
value or rare.
3. Nature of transport systems: Good and well-developed transport system
encourages extraction of mineral deposits because they can link up to market
centers and poor transport discourages mineral deposits to be extracted.
4. Value of the mineral: Some minerals like gold, diamond and uranium are in
great demand all over the world. So, they are mined than other minerals which
are not demanded globally because they have markets to be sold.

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 5. Availability of advanced technology: Machines are required to extract
minerals and skillful personnel who have knowledge of extracting minerals from
the crust thus facilitating mining. Where technology is poor and labor is unskilled,
the mining process is delayed.
6. Capital: Adequate money available for investment facilitates the buying of
machinery. Furniture and hiring skillful labor to extract minerals from the earth's
crust thus speeding up the mining activities. Inadequate capital leads to the slow
development of the mining industry.
7. Government policy: Where the government is supportive towards mining in
terms of giving out money, security, providing all the requirements, mining
develops at a higher speed than those areas where the government is not
supporting activities. Mineral deposits near the boundaries of the two countries
should not be exploited since disagreements over who mines them may arise,
such as the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait over the Rumaila oil field and
Sudan and South Sudan over the Abyei oil field.
Exercise 4.3

1. Discuss any five factors that influence mining minerals

2. Explain why most mining centers in the world have developed today.
4.4. Methods of mining minerals
Minerals are extracted using the following three processes:

1. Open-cast mining: this mining method is used when mineral deposits lie near
the earth's surface. It is used to extract mainly the placer or alluvial deposits.
Most minerals mined using this method include bitumen, clay, coal, copper,
coquina, diamonds, iron, gold, etc.
2. Dredging (adit): This mining method is used when the mineral deposit is in the
valley sides. The method is used to remove mud, rocks, or sand from the mineral
layer to be extracted. This method is also used to extract alluvial or placer
deposits. Some minerals extracted by use of this method include deposits of
diamond, gold, platinum, magnetite, rutile, monazite, cassiterite, etc.
3. Shaft mining (underground mining): A mining method used to extract vein-
and lode deposits where minerals lie very deep below the earth's surface (about
400 meter deep). Some minerals extracted using this method are: - gold, silver,
iron, copper, zinc, nickel, tin, lead, etc.

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 Exercise 4.4

1. Describe the three methods of mining minerals.

2. State any three examples of minerals extracted by each method.
4.5. Distribution of minerals in Somalia/Puntland

Somalia has a variety of minerals some of which are mined in small quantities such as
salt, gypsum, alluvial soil.

Some important minerals have been explored in Somalia and traced including oil,
uranium, bauxite, copper, quartz, sulphur, manganese, tin, lead and many others which
are not yet extracted.
Major minerals in Somalia

1. Salt: water from the ocean is kept in evaporation bonds where high temperature
causes water to evaporate leaving behind deposits of salt. Salt is the leading
mineral export from Somalia
2. Gypsum: is mined from El-bur and it's used for making important utensils like
"fire-pot and ash-tray". These goods are mainly sold in most local markets.
3. Alluvial: soil is the third mineral locally mined in small quantities. This is found in
the river beds and used in making materials like cooking and fire pot, utilized by
people around rivers Juba and Shebelle.

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 4. Fossil Fuels: In 2010, Range Resources Ltd. of Australia and Africa Oil Ltd. of
Canada explored the Dharoor Valley and the Nugaal Valley onshore blocks in
Puntland in search of crude petroleum. On completion of the exploration work,
the two companies will undertake drilling work.
Exercise 4.5

1. Name any five minerals explored and traced in Somalia.

2. Explain how salt is processed from seawater.
3. Explain why oil is not extracted yet Somalia?

4.6. Significance of mining of any country/Somalia

Mining minerals have many vital importance and these includes:
1. Source of employment opportunities: Many people find work in mines or
related industries. This is good for reducing poverty.
2. Provision of social services: Mines provide amenities on their staff like
schools, health clinics and sporting activities. This raises the living standard of
the employee and their families.
3. Improving the standard of living: When people have jobs and access to
good social services, their standard of living improves.
4. Development of transport links and infrastructures: When a company
starts mining in an area they often build roads and improve access to
electricity and water supply. This is beneficial to the wider community.
5. Development of related industries: After minerals have been mined they
have to be processed. This leads to the setting up of processing and
packaging factories, creating more jobs and contributing to economic
development.
6. Development of towns: A town is developed at the mining site because
people working in the mine buy products from the town and go there for
services. E.g: Gara'ad is developed because of salt processing: Magadi is
developed at the mining of soda-ash.
7. Development of skills: The mining company introduces technology and
trains people in its use. These skills can then apply to other fields. Then the
country workforce becomes well trained.
8. Earn foreign exchange: Most minerals are exported and sold overseas. This
money is used to pay for imports. Thus minerals earn foreign exchange.
9. Economic diversification: It is good for a country to have industries so that
it is not wholly dependent on one product.

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 If a country depends on solely agriculture and there is a drought, there will be
widespread suffering and hunger; but if it also mines minerals, people still
earn money and will be able to buy the essentials they need.

Exercise 4.6
1. Explain any five significance of mining to Puntland
2. Why is economic diversification important for a country?

4.7. Problems facing mining

There are many problems associated with the mining industry. , which are:
1. Inadequate capital: Some developing countries with large reserves of
mineral deposits lack enough capital for exploiting their deposits
2. Poor transport system: In some cases, remoteness and poor transport
system hinder the full exploitation of large deposits.
3. Lack of skilled personnel: Many developing countries do not have skilled
personnel and depend on expatriates for prospecting minerals.
4. Small deposits: Some countries have small deposits which are
uneconomical and minerals remain unexploited.
5. Price fluctuation (lack of market): This is a contributory problem associated
with mining. If the price of the mineral is low, it is left unexploited.
6. Insufficient power supply: In some places where large deposits of minerals
exist, exploitation may be hindered by the insufficient power supply and high
cost of production caused by the use of petroleum.
7. Lack of suitable outlet: Land-locked countries lack a suitable outlet to the
coastal ports; exploitation of minerals becomes very difficult particularly if
there is a political difference to the neighboring counties.
8. Mineral exhaustion: Most of the minerals are non-renewable thus over
exploitation may lead to their disappearance in the area.
Exercise 4.7

1. Explain at least four problems associated with the mining industry

4.8. Effects of mining on the environment

The creation of derelict land, particularly in areas where open-cast mining is practiced.
This abandonment of land after mineral extraction has occurred is seen in various
countries, such as Malaysia with tin mining and Sierra Leone with uranium mining. The
causes of dereliction can be attributed to several factors:

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 1. Lack of investment in rehabilitation: Mining companies may be unwilling to
allocate funds towards land rehabilitation projects, prioritizing short-term profits
over long-term environmental considerations.
2. Focus on economic benefits: In developing countries, governments may
prioritize the financial advantages of mineral exports, employment opportunities,
and economic development, often overlooking the potential consequences of
derelict land.
3. Insufficient enforcement of land rehabilitation: Many governments fail to
enforce regulations and policies related to land rehabilitation, resulting in a lack
of efforts to restore the affected areas.
Effects of dereliction on the environment

1. Ugliness: People who live in the derelict land have no pride in their towns and
homes because all the natural beauty of the landscape has been lost.
2. Health hazard: Mineral exploitation can create many hazards. Water can be
pumped into open cast mines, creating deep pulls. Thus accidence is likely to
occur particularly to the children. These pulls can also be a breeding ground for
mosquitoes. Land over underground mines may subside causing houses and
other structures to collapse.
3. Loss of productivity: The soil left behind after mining has finished, is often
polluted and will not be suitable for agriculture. Hence food production in the area
reduces.
4. Soil erosion: Mining loses the ground and moves vegetation cover which
increases the risk of soil erosion.
5. Loss of biodiversity: Plants and animals that used to live in the mining site are
driven out (killed) by the mining activities. This reduces the number and diversity
of wildlife in the area.
Exercise 4.8

1. Define the term dereliction.

2. Outline any three effects of dereliction on the environment.
3. Give examples of countries suffering from dereliction.

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