18ECE111 : Internet of Things

(Professional Elective – II)

B.Tech. III Year II Semester

Unit 1 - Overview of
IoT

Prepared and Presented by

Dr. Velmani
Ramasamy, Assistant
Professor,
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Madanapalle Institute of Technology and Science,
Madanapalle, Andhra Pradesh.
08-Mar-20 1
UNIT I - OVERVIEW OF IOT (9)

The Internet of Things: An Overview; The Flavor of the Internet of

Things; The “Internet” of “Things”; The Technology of
the Internet of Things; Enchanted Objects; Who is Making the
Internet of Things?; Design Principles for Connected Devices; Calm and
Ambient Technology; Privacy; Keeping Secrets; Whose Data Is It Anyway?;
Web Thinking for Connected Devices; Small Pieces, Loosely Joined; First-
Class Citizens On The Internet; Graceful Degradation; Affordances

08-Mar-20 2
 1.1 The Internet of Things: An
What is IoT ? Overview
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a system of interrelated, internet-
connected objects that are able to collect and transfer data over a
wireless network without human intervention.

What is meant by IoT devices?

Anything that has a sensor attached to it and can transmit data from one object
to another or to people with the help of internet is known as data.
 IoT devices include wireless sensors, software, actuators, and
computer devices.
They are attached to a particular object that operates through the internet,
enabling the transfer of data among objects or people automatically without
human intervention.

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Are mobile phones/Computer/Laptop Internet of things?
 As long as the device is able to connect to the internet and has sensors
that
transmit data, it can be considered an IoT device.
Although your smartphone can do both, it's not an IoT device.

How IoT is useful in our daily life?

Some real-world examples of IoT are
 Wearable fitness and trackers (like Fitbits).
 Healthcare applications.
 Voice assistants (Siri and Alexa).
 Smart cars (Tesla).
 Smart appliances (iRobot).
With IoTs rapid deployment coming into contact with multiple IoT devices
every day will be unavoidable soon.
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What are the advantages of Internet of
things?

Advantages of IoT
 Easy access.
 Speed.
 Adapting new standards.
 Better time management.

Disadvantages of IoT

 Data Breach.
 Dependence.
 Complexity.
 To Sum Up (security).
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 1.2 The Flavour of the Internet of Things
Example of IoT:
(i) Home Security
The Internet of Things is the key driver behind a completely smart and
secure home.
IoT connects a variety of sensors, alarms, cameras, lights, and microphones
to provide 24/7/365 security—all of which can be controlled from a smart
phone.

(ii) Activity Trackers

These sensor devices are designed to be worn during the day to monitor and
transmit key health indicators in real time, such as fatigue, appetite, physical
movement, oxygen levels, blood pressure, fall detection, and compliance
with taking medicine.
At-home health monitoring reduces the number of emergency doctor or
hospital visits and helps elderly or disabled people live more independent
lives.
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Even a pacemakers can be an IoT device that seamlessly communicates with
(iii) Digital Twins
 In the manufacturing world, a digital twin is essentially an identical digital
copy of a physical object.
Using technologies including IoT, artificial intelligence, and machine
learning,
the digital twin can update itself as the physical object changes in response
to its surrounding conditions.
Engineers can use the digital twin, instead of the actual physical object,
to make adjustments or test updates.

(iv) Traffic Monitoring

IoT systems in your car identifies the traffic ahead and automatically sends
out messages to the person you are about to meet of your impending delay.

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(v) Self-Healing Machines
Relying on arrays of thousands of sensors, artificial intelligence, and
machine
learning, manufacturing equipment can be designed to recognize variances
in its own operation, and correct them, before they turn into problems that
require downtime and repair.
This saves companies time and money and frees up employees who would
normally monitor equipment and undertake maintenance to work on
higher- level tasks.

(vi) Smart Farming

Farming can be a very high-tech endeavor these days.
An increasing number of farmers are using IoT-enabled tools to monitor
weather, soil composition, soil moisture levels, crop health and growth,
and livestock activity.
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The data can also be analyzed to determine the best time to harvest plants
and
create fertilizer profiles and schedules.
Drones can also be used to collect photos and atmospheric
data.
(vii) AR / Smart Glasses
Google Glass is essentially a small, lightweight
computer that is worn like a pair of eyeglasses
for hands-free work.
 The information is presented within the
“lenses”
of the glasses, which can access a variety of *AR - Augmented Reality
Internet
 applications,
In industrial settings,including
workers Google Maps
often use and
them to pull up blueprints or
Gmail.
product specifications.
The latest edition of these smart glasses allows workers to stream clear
“point of view” video from expert assistants in other locations using wi-fi.
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(viii) Smart Contact Lenses
Smart contact lenses that can collect health information or treat specific eye
conditions.
Swiss company Sensimed has developed a noninvasive smart contact lens
called Triggerfish.
Triggerfish has a sensor embedded in a soft silicone contact lens that detects
tiny fluctuations in an eye’s volume, which can be an indicator of glaucoma.
The device transmits data wirelessly from the sensor to an adhesive antenna
worn around the eye.
(ix) Motion Detection
Using sensors to detect motion or vibration in large-scale structures such as
buildings, bridges, and dams can identify the small disturbances and patterns
that could lead to catastrophic failures.
Networks of detectors are also used in areas susceptible to
landslides, avalanches, and earthquakes.
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(x) Industrial Security and Safety
Sensors and cameras can be used to monitor the perimeter of restricted
areas and detect trespassers in non-authorized areas.
Small leaks of hazardous chemicals or pressure build-ups can be identified
and fixed before they become serious problems.
Identifying and fixing leaks of fluids reduces corrosion and minimizes
maintenance costs.
IoT-enabled detection systems are also used to monitor chemical
factories, nuclear facilities, and mining operations.

(xi) Ingestible Sensors

Ingestible electronic devices, roughly the size of a pill and outfitted with a
power supply, microprocessor, controller, and sensors, can be swallowed to
monitor disease conditions and transmit data from within the
gastrointestinal tract—for example, to detect bleeding or absorption of
pharmaceuticals.
Abilify MyCite was the first pill will a digital tracking system that has been
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approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
 1.3 The “Internet” of “Things”
 The Internet is used to send, receive, or Physical Object
+
communicate information. Controller, Sensor and Actuators
The gadget that was connected to the +
Internet
Internet wasn’t a computer, tablet, or =
mobile phone but an object, a Thing. Internet of Things
Things are designed for a purpose:
Fig. An equation for the Internet of Things.
The umbrella has a retractable canopy and a handle to hold it.
A bus display has to be readable to public transport users, including the elderly
and partially sighted and be able to survive poor weather conditions and the risk
of vandalism.
The sports bracelet is easy to wear while running, has a display that is large
enough and bright enough to read even when you are moving, and will
survive heat, cold, sweat, and rain.
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The Internet of Things suggests that rather than having a small number
of very powerful computing devices in your life (laptop, tablet, phone,
music player), you might have a large number of devices which are
perhaps less powerful (umbrella, bracelet, mirror, fridge, shoes).
 Now that the Internet is a central pipe for data, it’s hard to imagine,
for
example, a PC that doesn’t have an always-on broadband connection.
 IoT device is an intelligently programmed computer processor, driven
by
sensors in the real world, and driving output in the real world, all
embedded into an everyday object.
The Thing is present, physically in the real world, in your home, your
work, your car, or worn around your body. It can receive inputs from your
world and
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Your chair might collect information about how often you sit on it and for
how long.
The sewing machine reports how much thread it has left and how many
stitches it has sewn.
Thing also can produce outputs into your world with what we call
“actuators”. Some of these outputs could be triggered by data that has
been collected and processed on the Internet.
 The chair might vibrate to tell you that you have received email.

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IoT Sensor Node Block RFID – Radio-frequency
Diagram identification NFC - Near-Field
Communication WiFi - Wireless
Fidelity

Source: https://www.mouser.in/applications/internet-of-things-block-diagr
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Sensor Node
 A sensor node, also known as a mote (chiefly in North America), is a node in
a sensor network that is capable of performing some processing, gathering
sensory information and communicating with other connected nodes in
the
network.
 A mote is a node but a node is not always a mote.

Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks

 Military applications.
 Area monitoring.
 Transportation.
 Health applications.
 Environmental sensing.
 Air pollution monitoring.
08-Mar-20
Forest fires detection.
 Greenhouse monitoring.
 Landslide detection.
 Structural monitoring.
 Industrial monitoring.
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 1.4 The Technology of the Internet of Things

Bill Gates’s famous vision in 1977 of “a computer on every desk and in every
home” and again with the earlier notion of a computer as an astonishingly
expensive and specialised machine, accessible only to universities, some
forward thinking global corporations, and the military.
Technology’s great drivers have initially been fundamental needs, such
as food and water, warmth, safety, and health.
Resources for these things are not always distributed where and when
one might like, technological advances progress with enabling and
controlling the movement of people, their possessions, livestock, and other
resources.
Trade develops as a movement of goods from a place where they are
plentiful and cheap to one where they are rare and valuable.
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 Storage is a form of movement in time.
The development of language to communicate technology to others.
Travellers might pass on messages as well as goods and services, and an oral
tradition allows this information to pass through time as well as space.
 As technology has progressed, new categories of objects have been
created:
in the electronic age, they have included telephones, radios, televisions,
computers, and smart phones.
 A television screen would originally have physically dominated a living
room.
Today’s flat-screen panels more compact, but the technology is so ubiquitous
that a high resolution screen capable of displaying television content can be
embedded into a door frame or a kitchen unit.
 Even smaller screens can find their way into music players and mobile
phones.
08-Mar-20
Since, so cheap to produce a general purpose microchip in devices that your18
The cash register at the supermarket may run on Windows, and your video
player may run a version of Apple’s OS X.
Computing power linked on the one hand to electronic sensors and actuators
which interact with the real world and on the other to the Internet.
The rapid sharing and processing of information with services or other
consumers is a huge differentiator.
Modern cars
 The computers that exist in modern cars may have myriad sensors to
determine how well the car is running—from oil gauge and tyre pressure to
the internals of your engine.
 Computerized brakes may assist the driver when the processor spots
conditions such as the wheels locking or spinning out of control.
The local information will be processed, analysed, and it will be limited to
whatever
08-Mar-20
the car manufacturer has programmed. 19
Car also tracks your location using GPS: this is external (although not
necessarily Internet-related) data.
High-end cars may communicate the location back to a tracking service for
insurance and anti-theft purposes.
The car carries computing equipment that is able to not just passively
consume data but also to have a dialogue with an external service.
The car’s computer is connected to the Internet (regularly or permanently),
it enables services such as responding to traffic conditions in real time by
rerouting around them.
The GPS might already supply such data, but now it can be created in real
time by “social route planning” based on the data aggregated from what
other
connected drivers nearby are doing.
08-Mar-20
Previously internal data gets connected to the Internet, it can be processed,20
There is a real change to an object or appliance when you embed computing
power into it and another real change when you connect that power to
the Internet.
 When the Internet moved out of academia and the military, with the first
commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) opening for business in the
late 1980s.
 The early adopters of the consumer Internet may have first gone online
with
a computer running an Intel 486 chip, costing around £ 1500, or around
the price of a small car.
A microchip with equivalent power might set you back around £ 0.50, or
the
price of a chocolate bar today.
08-Mar-20
The rapid rise of processing power, and the consequent cost decreases 21
Moore’s law
The rule of thumb, suggested by the co-founder of Intel.
The number of transistors you can fit on a silicon chip will double
every 18 months.
Qualitative Vs Quantitative change.
 Manufacturers of electronic products have started to incorporate
general- purpose computer CPUs into their products, from washing machines
to cars, as they have seen that it has become, in many cases, cheaper to do
this than to create custom chips.
 The wealth of programming and debugging resources available for
these platforms has made them attractive to hobbyists and the prototyping
market,
leading to the proliferation of the microcontrollers.
 Nowadays, Internet connectivity is also cheaper and more
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Wired Ethernet provides a fairly plug-and-play networking experience, but
most home routers today also offer WiFi, which removes the need for
running cables everywhere.
 A fixed network connection isn’t readily available, mobile phone
connectivity
is widespread.
The whitespace network are available to use the airspace from the old
analogue TV networks to fill gaps.
 Application Programming Interface (API) programming, which allows
other
programs, rather than just users, to interact with and use the services
on offer.
Web services frameworks such as Python and Django or Ruby on Rails allow
easy prototyping of the online component.
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 1.5 Enchanted Objects
 The best known of Arthur C. Clarke’s “three laws of prediction” states

Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.

—http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarke
’s_three_laws.
The formalist scholar Vladimir Propp categorized the folktales of his native
Russia and categorised their plot elements into 31 functions, including
“violation of interdiction”, “villainy”, “receipt of a magical agent”, “difficult
task”, and so on.
The point of view of a Silicon Valley entrepreneur and technologist, David Rose
has talked about Enchanted Objects at TEDx Berkeley.
He categorised various objects drawn from fairy tales and fantasy literature in
ways that apply as much to technological objects.
-(http://tedxtalks.ted.com/video/TEDxBerkeley-David-Rose-Encha
08-Mar-20 nt). 24
The postal service, telephones, and social networking help keep us in touch
with our family and friends.
 The need for Creative Expression is fulfilled in stories by
the enchanted paintbrushes or magic flutes and harps, while we
have always used technology to devise such creative outlets,
from charcoal to paint to computer
graphics, from drums to violins and electronic
synthesisers.
 The technology has always been associated with magic, and so this will
be true almost by default for the Internet of Things.
A key element of many enchanted objects is that above and
beyond their practical enchantment they are given a name and a
personality.

08-Mar-20 The connected devices, or Things, have processing and 25

 1.6 Who is making the Internet of Things ?

As Internet of Things thought leader and entrepreneur Alexandra

Deschamps-Sonsino noted at the Victoria and Albert Museum’s Power of

Making Symposium, (designing and making Internet connected Things)
both these words mean many things to different people.
The following graphic (figure) depicts her initial attempt to map out the
meaning of making things.
 There are many crossover points between all the disciplines listed.
Artists may collaborate with designers on installations or with traditional
craftspeople on printmaking.
Designers and engineers work closely to make industrial products, and
hobbyist “hackers” (in the sense of tinkerers and amateur engineers), by
their nature, are a diverse group encompassing various technical and artistic
interests and skills.
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 DIY – Do It Yourself
FLOSS - Free-Libre / Open Source
Software
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The map isn’t complete, and one could raise issue with omissions: no role of
“architect” is listed, only the discipline of architecture, straddling the roles of
engineer, designer, and craftsperson.
 The Internet of Things straddles all these disciplines: a hacker might tinker
at
the prototype for a Thing;
a software developer might write the online component,
a designer might turn the ugly prototype into a thing of beauty, possibly
invoking the skills of a craftsperson, and an engineer might be required to
solve difficult technical challenges, especially in scaling up to production.
 The Internet of Things is, or should be, the “Internet of Beautiful Things”,
and every object, as well as being a crafted, designed, and engineered object,
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 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the
late 1970s.
 An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems
to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
OSI model facilitate the communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
 OSI model is not a protocol ; it is a model for understanding and designing
a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
16-Mar-21 29
 OSI model consist of 7 separate but related layers, each of which defines
a of the process of moving information across a network.
part
An understanding of the fundamentals of the OSI model provides a solid
basis for exploring the data communications.

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

Figure 1.1 Seven layers of the OSI

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model
Layered Architecture

Figure 1.2 The interaction between layers in the OSI

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model
Figure 1.2 shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device
A to device B.
When the message travels from A and B, it may pass through
many intermediate nodes.
The intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the
OSI model.
Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other
layers.
 OSI model allows complete interoperability between incompatible
systems.
Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just
below it.
 Between machines, layer ‘x’ on one machine communicates with layer ‘x’
on another machine.
The communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and
conventions called protocols.
 The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer
are
peer-peer processes.
Communication between machines is a peer-to-peer process using the
16-Mar-21 32
protocols appropriate to a given layer.
 Peer-to-Peer Processes

At physical layer, communication is direct.

 Device A sends a stream of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes).
At higher layers, communication must move down through the layers on device A, over
to device B, and then back up through the layers.
Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives
from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it.
At layer 1 entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving
device.
 At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process
receiving and removing the data meant for it.
Example :
Layer 2 removes the data meant for it, then passes the rest to layer 3. Layer 3
then 2 removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to layer 4, and so on.

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Interface Between Layers
The data and network information passing down through the layers of the
sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is
made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.
Each interface defines the information and services a layer must provide
for the layer above it.
 Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a
network.
As long as a layer provides the expected services to the layer above it, the
specific implementation of its functions can be modified or replaced without
requiring changes to the surrounding layers.
Organization of Layers
 The seven layers can be thought of three subgroups.
 Layers 1, 2, and 3 – physical, data link, and network – are the network
support layers.
* They deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device
to another (such as electrical specifications, physical connections, physical
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addressing, and transport timing and reliability).
  Layers 5, 6 and 7 – session, presentation, and application layers can
be
thought of as the user support layers.
* they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems.
Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and ensures that what
the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layer can use.
 The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software.
Lower layers are the combination of hardware and software, except for the
physical layer, which is mostly hardware.
In Fig. 1.15,

 At each layer, a header, or possibly a trailer, can be added to the data.

 Commonly, the trailer is added only at
layer 2. D7 -> data unit at layer 7.
D6 -> data unit at layer 6.
The process starts at layer 7 (application layer), then moves from layer to layer in
descending, sequential order.
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 When the formatted data unit passes through the physical layer (layer 1), it
is
changed into an electromagnetic signal and transported along a physical
link.

Figure 1.3 An exchange using the OSI

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Encapsulation / Decapsulation

The data portion of a packet at level N-1 carries the whole packet (data and
header and maybe trailer) from level N is called encapsulation; which is
performed for sending operation.
The data portion of a packet at level N-1 carries the whole packet
(data and
header and maybe trailer) to level N is called decapsulation; which
is performed for receiving operation.
A network device have an capability transmit and receive the data in
parallel; since the device support for full-duplex.
Level N-1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is data and
which part is the header or trailer.
 For level N-1, the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one
integral
unit.
Note:
A packet
16-Mar-21 (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. 37
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit over a
physical medium.
It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.
 Also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
Fig.1.4 shows the position of the physical layer with respect to the
transmission media and the data link layer.

Figure 1.4 Physical

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layer
The physical layer is also concerned with the
following:
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and
medium.
 Representation of bits. (sequence of 0s or 1s).
 Data rate.
 Synchronization of bits.
 Line configuration.
 Physical topology.
 Transmission mode.

The physical layer is responsible for movements

of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.

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 Data Link
Layer
Data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link.
 It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper-layer (network layer).
Figure 1.5 shows the relationship of the data link layer to the network layer and
physical layers.

Figure 1.5 Data link

layerlink layer is responsible for
The data
moving frames from one hop (node) to
16-Mar-21 the next. 40
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the
following:
 Framing.
 Physical addressing (MAC address – 48 bit).
 Flow control.
 Error control.
 Access control.
Fig. 1.6 illustrates hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery by the data link
layer.

16-Mar-21
Figure 1.6 Hop-to-hop 41
delivery
Fig. 1.6
Communication at the data link layer occurs between two adjacent nodes.
 To send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are made.
First, the data link layer at A sends a frame to the data link layer at B (a
router).
 Second, the data link layer at B sends a new frame to the data link
layer at E.
 Finally, the data link layer at E sends a new frame to the data link layer
at F.

Note:

The frames are exchanged between the three nodes have different values in the
Frame from A to B - B Destination address & A Source
headers.
> Frame from B to E address. E Destination address & B Source
-> Frame from E to F address. F Destination address & E Source
The values
-> of the trailers can also be different if error checking includes the
address.
header of the frame.
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Network
Layer
Network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination (point of origin to its final
destination) delivery of a packet possibly across multiple networks (links).
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a
network-layer.
 If two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting
devices
between the networks (links), the network layer is needed for to accomplish
source-to-
destination delivery.
Figure 1.7 shows the relationship of the network layer to the data link layer and
transport layers.

16-Mar-21
Figure 1.7 Network 43
layer
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the
following:
 Logical addressing
The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer, which includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
 Routing
When independent networks or links are connected to create
internetworks (networks of networks) or a large network, the connecting
devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their final
destination.
Fig. 1.8
The network layer at end system A sends the packet to the network layer
at
Intermediate system B.
When the packet arrives at router B, the router makes a decision based
on the final destination F of the packet.
Router B uses its routing table to find that the next hop is router E.
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The network layer at B, sends the packet to the network layer at E.
 Fig. 1.8 illustrates end-to-end delivery by the network layer.

Figure 1.8 Source-to-destination

delivery
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the source host to the destination host.
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Transport
Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the
entire message.
It ensures the whole message arrives intact and inorder, overseeing both
error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.
A process is an application running on a host.
Fig. 1.9 shows the relationship of the transport layer to the network and
session layers.

16-Mar-21 Figure 1.9 Transport 46

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
 Service-point addressing (port address – 2^16 = 65536)
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection control (Connectionless – UDP ; Connection-oriented –
TCP).
 Flow control
 Error control
The message arrives at the transport layer without error (damage, loss, or
duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

Figure 1.10 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a

message The transport layer is responsible for the
delivery of a message from one process to
16-Mar-21 another. 47
Session Layer
Session layer is the network dialog controller.
It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.

16-Mar-21
Figure 1.11 Session 48
layer
Other responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
 Dialog control (allows two systems to enter into a dialog).
 Synchronization (add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to
a stream of data).
E.g.,

A system sending a file -> 2000 pages

Check point inserted after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-
page unit is received and acknowledged independently.
If any crash happens during transmission of page 523, the only
pages need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523.
Page previous to 501 need not be sent.

The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

16-Mar-21 49
 Presentation
Layer
Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.
Fig. 1.12 shows the relationship between the presentation layer and the
application and session layers.

Figure 1.12 Presentation

The presentation layerlayer
is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
16-Mar-21 50
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
 Translation
 Responsible for interoperability between different encoding methods.
 Sender changes sender-dependent format into a common format.
 Receiving machine changes the common format into receiver-dependent
format.
 Encryption / Decryption
 In encryption, the sender transforms the original information to another
form and sends the resulting message out over the network.
 In Decryption, the receiver reverses the original process to transform
the
message back to its original form.
 Compression / Decompression
 Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
 Data compression is very important in the transmission of multimedia
such as text, audio, and video.
 Decompression performs reverse operations to compression.
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Application Layer
Application layer enables or interface the user, whether human or
software
access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail,
remote file and transfer, shared database management, and other types of
distributed information services.

16-Mar-21
Figure 1.13 Application layer 52
Fig. 1.13 show the relationship of the application layer to the user and the
presentation layer.
 Among many services, few services are:
X.400 (message-handling services).
X.500 (directory services).
File transfer, access and management (FTAM).

Specific responsibilities of the application layer include the following:

 Network virtual terminal.
 File transfer, access and management.
 Mail services.
 Directory services.

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

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Summary of
Layers

Figure 1.14 Summary of

16-Mar-21 layers 54
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL
SUITE
TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to OSI model.
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI
model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application.
When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite
is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, the host-to-network layer is equivalent to
the combination of the physical and data link layers.
 First four layers provide physical standards, network
interfaces,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first
four
layers of the OSI model.
Three topmost layers in the OSI model, are represented in TCP/IP by a single
layer called the application layer.
16-Mar-21 55
16-Mar-21
Figure 1.15 TCP/IP and OSI 56
model
TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of
which provides a specific functionality; however the modules are not
necessarily independent.

Hierarchical
Hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is supported
by
one or more lower-level protocols.

Note:
 The OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers.
 TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can be
mixed and matched depending on the needs of the system.

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Physical and Data Link Layers

TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol.

It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-area network or wide-
area network.
Network Layer
At network layer (internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the Internetworking
Protocol.
 IP uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

Internetworking Protocol (IP)

Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the
TCP/IP protocols.
It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol – a best effort delivery
service.
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Best effort means IP provides no error checking or tracking.
IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get
a transmission through to its destination, but no guarantees.
 IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is
transported
separately.
Datagram can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence
or be duplicated.
IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering
datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
IP provides bare-bones transmission functions that free the user to add only
those facilities necessary for a given application, and thereby allows for
maximum efficiency.

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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 ARP is used to associate a logical address with a physical address.
ARP finds the physical address of the node when its Internet address is
known.
 On a typical physical network, such as LAN, each device on a link is
identified
by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network
interface
card (NIC).
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 RARP allows host to discover its internet address when it knows only
its
physical address.
RARP is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time
or when a diskless computer is booted.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
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ICMP mechanism is used by the hosts and gateways to send notification of
Internet Group Message Protocol
(IGMP)
IGMP is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to
a group of recipients.

Note:

IP is the host-to-host protocol, it can deliver a packet from one

physical device to another.

Transport Layer

Usually the TCP/IP transport layer was represented by two protocols:

TCP and UDP.
UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a
message from a process (running program) to another process.
Further, SCTP is devised to meet the needs of some specific applications.

16-Mar-21 61
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 UDP is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port address,
checksum, error control, and length information to the data from the upper
layer.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 TCP provides full transport-layer services to applications.
TCP is a reliable stream transport protocols.
 Stream – connection oriented.
TCP establishes the connection between both ends of a transmission
before either can transmit data.
 At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of
data into
smaller units called segments.
Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt,
together with an acknowledgement number for the segments received.
 Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams.
16-Mar-21
At receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders 62