UNIT 4

MODULE 2

CELLULAR
REPRODUCTION
& GENETICS
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GENETICS
 It is the study of heredity
and variation. It aims to
understand how traits can be
passed on to the next
generation and how variation
arises.

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GENETICS
 The sharing of features can
be explained by HEREDITY,
where traits are passed on
from parents to offspring.
 VARIATION demonstrates
differences among individuals.

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 UNLOCKING OF TERMS:
Chromatin is the complex of DNA and
proteins that makes up a eukaryotic
chromosome. When cell isn't dividing,
chromatin exists as a mass of very thin and
long fibers. 
Chromosome is a threadlike gene-carrying
structure found in the nucleus which
consists of one very long DNA molecule and
associated proteins.
Chromatids are the X shape that is formed
from two chromosomes. 
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 UNLOCKING OF TERMS:
Basically, in process of structure, chromatin contains
thousands of genes in uncondensed form. Chromosomes are
when the chromatin condense from long strands of DNA into
a compressed form. When a chromosome replicates, or
duplicates, it forms sister chromatids in the X shape. 

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 UNLOCKING OF TERMS:
A sister chromatid
refers to the identical
copies (chromatids)
formed by the DNA
replication of a
chromosome, with both
copies joined together by
a common centromere.

Centromere is the most condensed and

constricted region of a chromosome, to which
the spindle fiber is attached during mitosis.
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 UNLOCKING OF TERMS:
Spindle fibers are filaments
that form the mitotic
spindle in cell division, i.e.
mitosis and meiosis. They
are chiefly involved in
moving and segregating the
chromosomes during nuclear
division.

Kinetochores are specialized regions in the

centromeres of chromosomes.
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 UNLOCKING OF TERMS:
• Somatic cell – a body cell; a cell
whose genes will not be passed on to
future generations.
• diploid (2N) – a cell with 2
chromosome sets in each of its
cells; all body (somatic) cells
• haploid (N) – a cell with 1
chromosome set in each of its cells;
all gametes (sperm, eggs)
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The Cell
Cycle
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Cell Cycle

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Five Phases of the Cell Cycle
G1 - primary growth phase
S – synthesis; DNA replicated
G2 - secondary growth phase
collectively these 3 stages are
called interphase
M - mitosis
C - cytokinesis

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 INTERPHASE
 The interphase refers to the period
that follows one cell division and
precedes another. During this stage,
the cell does not divide; it merely
grows.
 Here, the chromosome doubles or
replicates itself because the DNA
molecule contained in the
chromosome produces an exact copy
of itself.
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 INTERPHASE
 The interphase is divided into
three substages:
- G1 Phase (Gap 1 Phase)
- S Phase (Synthesis Phase)
- G2 Phase (Gap 2 Phase)

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 a. G1 Phase (Gap 1 Phase)
 The stage from the formation of a
new cell until it begins to replicate
its DNA.
 During this time, the cell grows
initially.
 This stage is characterized by
protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
synthesis.

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b. S Phase (Synthesis Phase)
 It is the period of DNA
synthesis or replication. The
chromosomes are duplicated
in preparation for the next
cell division.

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 c. G2 Phase (Gap2 Phase)
 It falls between the S
period and the next cell
division or M (mitosis or
meiosis) Phase.
 It represents a period of
rapid cell growth to prepare
for cell division
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MITOSIS
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 Mitosis
Division of the nucleus
Also called karyokinesis
Produces two identical (the same) cells
with the same number of chromosomes.
Mitosis occurs when an organism needs to
grow, repair or develop that is why it
creates somatic cells or body cells. Mitosis
is divided into four stages.

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 Mitosis
Occurs in somatic cells; this means that it
takes place in all types of cells that are not
involved in the production of gametes
 Somatic cells are the cells in the body
other than sperm and egg cells (which are
called germ cells).
In humans, somatic cells are diploid,
meaning they contain two sets of
chromosomes, one inherited from each
parent.
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Four Mitotic Stages

PROPHASE METAPHASE

ANAPHASE TELOPHASE 20
Mitosis

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Four Mitotic Stages

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 Early Prophase
Chromatin in nucleus condenses to
form visible chromosomes
Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in
cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)

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 Late Prophase
Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are
broken down
Chromosomes continue condensing &
are clearly visible
Spindle fibers called kinetochores
attach to the centromere of each
chromosome
Spindle finishes forming between the
poles of the cell
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 Spindle Fiber attached to
Chromosome

Kinetochore Fiber

Chromosome
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Prophase

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Prophase

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 Metaphase
Chromosomes, attached to the
kinetochore fibers, move to the
center of the cell
Chromosomes are now lined up at the
equator Equator of Cell

Pole of
the Cell

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Metaphase

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 Anaphase
Occurs rapidly
Sister chromatids are pulled apart
to opposite poles of the cell by
kinetochore fibers

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Anaphase

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 Telophase
Sister chromatids at opposite
poles
Spindle disassembles
Nuclear envelope forms around
each set of sister chromatids
Nucleolus reappears
CYTOKINESIS occurs
Chromosomes reappear as
chromatin

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Telophase

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Telophase

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 CYTOKINESIS
Means division of the cytoplasm
Division of cell into two,
identical halves called daughter
cells
In plant cells, cell plate forms
at the equator to divide cell
In animal cells, cleavage furrow
forms to split cell

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 CYTOKINESIS
Cleavage furrow Cell plate in
in animal cell plant cell

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CYTOKINESIS

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Cytokinesis

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 Daughter Cells of Mitosis
Have the same number of chromosomes
as each other and as the parent cell from
which they were formed
Identical to each other, but smaller than
parent cell

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Daughter Cells of Mitosis

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42
Phases of Cell Cycle - IPMATC
Important Impatient
People People
Must May
Analyze Attack
Tasks Teachers
Correctly Constantly
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 More About Mitosis
 The daughter cells have the same
number of chromosomes as each
other and as the parent cell from
which they were formed.
 The daughter cells are identical to
each other, but smaller than parent
cell

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 More About Mitosis
 A diploid cell will give rise to a
diploid cell
 Chromosome number remains
the same
 The DNA remains identically
the same
 One cell (2N) gives rise to two
cells (2N)
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46
 Mitosis
Number of divisions 1
Number of daughter
2
cells
Genetically identical? Yes
Chromosome # Same as parent
Where Somatic cells
When Throughout life
Role Growth and repair

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