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WEEK 4
 CONTENT:
(a) Concept of minimum and
maximum range of tolerance.

(b) Geographic range graph

illustrating maximum and
minimum range of tolerance.
CONCEPT OF MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM
RANGE OF TOLERANCE

Tolerance is the ability of an

organism to withstand extreme
variation in the environmental
conditions. Living organisms posses
the ability to withstand minor
unfavourable changes in the factors
(biotic and abiotic) or their environment
which affect their survival.
 a c t w i th
t s in te r
p o n e n
B i o ti c c o m
t s s u ch a s
o n e n
io ti c c o m p
ab ture, rainfal l factor. The l, h i g h l i g h t
p e r a d s o i in
tem s a l i n ity a n
ca n t r o l e
s it y , s i g n i fi
inten to rs p la y a
g a n i s m s .
i o ti c fa c i v i n g o r
a b o n o f l
i st r i b u ti
th e d
House Mouse
Concepts of minimum and maximum
range of tolerance

Organisms have a minimum and maximum

limit to which they can tolerate their
environment which influence their survival
or success in such environment. This range
is known as their limit of tolerance. Most
organisms cannot exist outside their limits
of tolerance. They therefore escape from
such environment once these limits are
being exceed or risk dying in such
environment.
Variation in Rooster Combs
 The law of m
inimum
tolerance wa
s introduced
1840 by Justi in
ce Liebig and
the law state
s that “the
growth of a p
lant will be
limited by w
hichever
requisite fac
tor is most
deficient in a
local
environment
”.
This law was expanded in 1913 by V.E.
Shelford by applying it to animals and
considered the fact that too much of
anything could be as bad as too little of
it. Hence, Shelford’s law of tolerance
states “the distribution of species will
be limited by the environmental factor
for which the organism has the
narrowest range of adaptability.
Since organism can only
live within certain
minimum and maximum
limits for each abiotic
factor, the range between
the upper and lower limit
is 0oC and the maximum
limit is 42oC. Their
tolerance range is 0 –
42oC.
Based on the law of tolerance,
an organism may have a wide
range of tolerance for one
abiotic factor and a narrow
range for another factor. An
organism with a wide range of
tolerance for all factors is likely
to have a wide distribution.
Ostriches
Ostriches
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE GRAPH
ILLUSTRATING MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
TOLERANCE

A species can only be found in areas that

are within the minimum and maximum limits
of its tolerance. These limits, therefore give
the geographic range or distribution of a
species. The branch of biology that deals
with geographical distribution of animals
and plants is known as biogeography.
 An
o
eco rgan
l o i s m
dw g
elli ical ’s
its ng n i
a
req tivi lace he i
c p c
u ti a s
eff irem es, s w the
ect e ell a
env s o nts s
i ro n t a n d
nm he
e nt
.
 EVALUATION
•State the law of tolerance.
•Explain the term ‘tolerance range’.
•Define tolerance and list five abiotic
factors that determines the survival
of an organism in an environment.
 OBJECTIVE TEST
•The ability of an organism to withstand
extreme variations in the environmental
condition is known as --- (a) resistance (b)
tolerance(c) adaptation (d) toughness.
•Which of the following is the tolerance range
for most animals? (a) 0o-100oC (b) -5-35oC (c)
0o-42oC (d) 0o-45oC
•Law of minimum tolerance was introduced
by (a) Carl shoe (b) Gregor Mendel (c)
Justice Liebig (d) V.E. Shelford
•Which of the following is incorrect (a) a species
can only found in area having its range of tolerance
(b) variation in abiotic factors are responsible for
distribution of a species (c) an ecological niche is
also known as biomes (d) the ability of an organism
to withstand extreme variation in environment is
tolerance.
•“The distribution of species will be limited by the
environmental factors for which the organism has
the narrowest range of adaptability” is 9a) Max
Shoe (b) Justice Liebig (c) V.E. Shelford (d) Carl
Shoe
ADAPTATION IN FORM AND FUNCTION OF LIVING
ORGANISMS DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS

Adaptation refers to any feature or

characteristics possessed by an
organism that contributes to its fitness
and survival in its environment. In order
to survive and fit into their environment, living
organisms usually possess some adaptive
features that make them to withstand life-
threatening and unfavourable environmental
conditions and promote their well-being and
proliferation.
Adaptations are inherited
characteristics of organisms.
They are displayed in three main
features of organisms, their
physiology and their behaviour.
Some insects mimic leaves in
order to escape predators, while
some plants produce toxins,
which prevent other plants from
growing near them, thus
reducing competition.
Stems
The stem of a plant provides
pathways for the distribution of
water and nutrients between the
roots, leaves, and other parts of
the plant. The herbaceous stem of
the dandelion (top, center) lacks
lignin, the stiffening material in
rigid, supportive woody stems. For
this reason, herbaceous plants are
generally limited in their physical
size.
Spurges and cacti (bottom, left), their
leaves reduced to needles to prevent
evaporation in a dry climate, consist
entirely of stem material. Tubers, such as
potatoes (top, right), are swollen, food-
storing, underground stems that nourish
growing buds. The stems of some plants
are adapted for protection, as in the
hawthorn (bottom, right). Others actively
compete for sunlight, using touch-
sensitive, curling tendrils (top, left) or
other structures to climb upwards.
ADAPTATION OF PLANTS

Plants are grouped into three on the

basis of the environmental
conditions under which they grow,
especially on availability of water in
the soil. The three groups are
hydrophytes, mesophytes and
xerophytes.
 Adaptation of Hydrophytes

Hydrophytes are plants that have

adapted to living in the aquatic
environment. They are either submerged
of floating on the water surface. The
plants can also grow in the soil that is
permanently saturated with water. Their
adaptive features include the following:
•Possession of large air cavities called parenchyma
that serve as a means of buoyancy and storing
gases for respiration.
•Possession of photosynthetic chloroplast that make
use of less light in water for photosynthesis.
•Possession of breathing roots (pneumatophores)
by some of the hydrophytes, which grows above the
water level to get enough oxygen for respiration.
•Possession of hairy leaves and thin and waxy
cuticle to repel rain water as they do not meet it.
•Surface plants float on water have broad leaves
that contain numerous stomata on the upper side
of the leaf, which trap maximum light for
photosynthesis.
•Possession of small feathering roots.
•Less rigid structure because water pressure
support them.
•They have succulent stem.
•Numerous stomata are opened at all times.

Examples of hydrophytes include water lily,

water lotus and water hyacinth.
 Adaptation of Mesophytes
Mesophytes are terrestrial plants
that grow in areas of moderate water
supply. They are the large ecological
group of terrestrial plants. Their
adaptive features are:
•Possession of well developed root
system.
•Presence of well developed vascular
bundle
•Possession of large thin leaves.
•Presence of large number of stomata on
the under surface of the leaves.
•Presence of erect and branded stem.
•Possession of mesophyll layer that is
well differentiated with many
intercellular spaces.
Examples include maize, sunflower,
cassava, hibiscus, mango and
orange.
 Adaptation of Xerophytes

Xerophytes are plants that grow in dry

areas with little water or moisture such
as desert. Their adaptive features are:
•Reduced leaves that are reduced to spines
and tiny scales to reduce water loss.
•Reduced number of stomata to reduce water
loss.
•Sunken stomata reduce transpiration.
•Large hairs on surface to reduce water loss.
•Succulent leaves and stems to store water.
•Deep root system to absorb water from depth.
•Possession of thick, waxy cuticle that reduces water loss
through cuticular transpiration.
•Shedding of leaves during day season to prevent water
loss through transpiration.
•Possession of ability to fold their leaves during the day to
decrease the number of stomata that is exposed, thus
reducing the rate of transpiration.

Examples are cactus, euphorbia, Aacia, pine and

opuntia.
Adaptation of animals to Terrestrial Habitat

•Most terrestrial organisms possess well

developed supporting or skeletal systems.
•The flight birds and mammals possess light
skeleton to enable them swing in the air.
•The climbing animals possess long curved claws
for support or nuptial pads to help them grip
surfaces.
•Some grassland and desert animals exhibited
protective colouration to prevent easy detection
by predators or prey e.g. chameleons.
Jeweled Lizard
•The herbivores grace on a variety
of forage.
•Most weak animals possess keen
eyesight and can run fast to escape
from their predators.
•They have well developed sense
organs.
•Some possess impermeable
coverage to prevent water loss e.g.
monitor, lizard and ant eater.
Adaptation of Animals to aquatic environment
•Possession of streamlined body that reduce friction during
movement in water e.g. fishes.
•Possession of dense, waterproof feathers that keep cold
water away from bird’s skin and prevent wetting of feather
e.g. birds.
•Possession of webbed feet, formed from their skin
between the toes that work like paddles e.g. ducts.
•Possession of gills in fishes and tad poles for gaseous
exchange.
•Possession of hooks, suckers, sticky under surfaces by
stationary organisms for attachment to rock surface e.g.
snails, flatworms.
•Possession of swim bladder to aid buoyancy in water e.g.
Tilapia fish.
 Bonito
Bonito, a relative of the tuna and mackerel, are buit for speed.
Bonitos have streamlined, torpedo-shaped bodies that taper
to a thin junction with a large, forked tail.
EFFECTS OF AVAILABILITY OF WATER
ON ADAPTIVE MODIFICATION

All terrestrial organisms face he problem

of water loss from their body fluids to the
environment. The body fluids of these
organisms are maintained by specialized
by osmoregulation or excretory organs
such as malphighian tubules and kidney.
A balance must be achieved between the
amount of water lost and gained.
Structural adaptation of Tadpole and fish
to aquatic life

•Possession of stream-lined body without

neck that enhance movement in water.
•Possession of a trial fin, which aid in
changing of reduction during swimming.
•Presence of external gills, which serve as the
respiratory organ used for oxygen uptake in
water.
 Becoming a Frog
The legless tadpoles that hatch from a floating mass of frog eggs
are the animal’s fishlike larval stage. Part of a true
metamorphosis, they have gills and a tail, both of which
disappear as the tadpole feeds and grows. When limbs and air-
breathing lungs develop, the young frog, now a miniature replica
of its parents, emerges from water to land.
 Structural Adaptation in birds
•Seed-eating birds like sparrow, cardinals and weaver birds have
short, thick, conical beaks adapted for cracking seeds or nuts.
•Birds of prey like hawks, eagles and owls have sharp, curved
breaks for tearing flesh, they also have strong chawlike feet, which
they use to capture and kill their prey.
•Aquatic birds like duck and seagulls have long, flat beaks adapted
for straining small plants and animals from the water and for
gripping fish and sieving muddy water for food. They also have
webbed feet adapted for swimming.
•Birds are insect eaters like woodpeckers have beaks that are long
and chisel-like for boring into wood to eat insects. Other insect
eaters like the nobblers have thin pointed beaks.
•Some birds like crows have a multi – purpose beak that is adapted
to eat fruits, seeds, insects, fishes and other animals.
 EVALUATION
•What is adaptation?
•Name three forms of adaptation that are
notable in organisms.
•Define the following and give two
examples of each: (a) hydrophytes (b)
mesophytes (c) xerophytes
•State three structural adaptations of
tadpole to aquatic life.
•State three structural adaptations of birds
to their feeding habits.
•Classify plants into three groups on the
basis of availability of water to the soil in
their environment.
•State five adaptive features of xerophytes
to arid environment.
•List adaptive features of animals to
terrestrial habitat.
 OBJECTIVE TEST
•The features that helps an organisation to survive
and exploit its environment is known as (a)
modified feature (b) adaptive features (c) enhanced
feature (d) structural features.
•The characteristics that increase and organism’s
potential to survive in its environment is called (a)
association (b) adaptation (c) modification (d)
tolerance
•Which of the following adapts tad-pole to aquatic
life? (a) presence of sharp claws (b) presence of
external gills (c) presence of spines (d) possession of
short beak
•Which of the following does not illustrate
adaptation to the environment? (a) Colour changes
by chameleon (b) streamline (c) light bones in birds
(d) development of big muscles by a weight lifter
(e) possession of fins by fish
•Which of the following does not illustrate
adaptation to the environment? (a) water leaf (b)
water hyacinth (c) cactus (d) pines
•The changing of colour by a chameleon to that of
the environment is an example of ---(a) adaptive
radiation (b) protective colouration (c) courtship
display (d) display of body colour
 WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Discuss the effects of air pollution

as a result of oxides of sulphur,
nitrogen and dust.
TOPIC:
POLLUTION
CLASS: SS2
 CONTENT
• :

• Air Pollution
• Noise pollution
• Water pollution
Pollution can be defined in the contamination of the
environment due to main activities which releases.
Harmful substances into our surrounding in quantities
that is dangerous to man and his resources.
Types of pollution
Types of pollution include the following:
•Air pollution,
•Noise pollution
•Water pollution,
•Soil pollution,
Substances that pollute the environment are called
pollutants thus: there are Air, water, soil and noise
pollutants.
• Czech Air Pollution
• Factory smoke darkens the sky above Prague, Czech Republic. The Czech Republic
faces a severe air pollution problem that is choking the nation’s land. Air pollution and
subsequent acid rain has killed or damaged many of the country’s trees and badly
degraded its soil.
Air Pollution:
From man’s daily activities pollutants such as smoke, gasses and
solids are disposes into the atmosphere. Air pollution can also
be said to be presence of mixture of gases and solid patches
in the air.
Nature of Air Pollution
Pollutants of the atmosphere (Air) include; gases, smoke, oxides
of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen such as; carbon (iv) oxide, carbon
(ii) oxide, sulphur (iv) oxide and oxides of nitrogen respectively as
well as smoke, dust etc. Manufacturing industries, fumes from city
Motor vehicles, power stations, combustion of fuels of
automobiles and jet planes also release pollutants into the
atmosphere. Herbicides, pesticides, aerosol, dust particles, pollen
grains fluorides and smog are all pollutants of the atmosphere.
 Sources of air pollutants
Fumes, dust, wastes from
Construction sites, industries,
mines, power station, farmlands,
domestic fires, sprayed herbicides
and pesticides are sources of air
pollutants.
• Industrial Smokestacks
• Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other types of contaminants pouring from industrial
smokestacks contribute largely to the world’s atmospheric pollution. Carbon dioxide contributes
significantly to global warming, while sulfur dioxide emissions are the principal cause of acid rain
in the northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and eastern Europe.
Effects of air pollution
Pollution of the atmosphere which is Air pollution affects
man and his resources in various ways:
•Smoke particles make streets and building dirty.
•Smoke reduces visibility within the environment.
•Smoke smog and dust can reduce intensity and quality of sunlight
which in turn reduces photosynthesis and automatically crop yields.
•Oxide of nitrogen in very high concentration can cause death of
animals.
•Nitrogen (iv) oxide cause irritation of the eyes in humans.
•Carbon (ii) oxide can easily combine with haemoglobin that can
reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
•Sulphur (iv) oxide a pollutant resulting from the activities of
petroleum refineries, poisons plant and lower their yield.
•Sulphur (iv) oxide causes respiratory diseases as it damages
respiratory organs.
 Control of air pollution

•Industries should be sited for away from

residential and commercial areas.

•Chimney pieces should be used in houses,

industries and similar places to release their
pollutants for from ground level.
 NOISE POLLUTION
Noise is defined as any unpleasant
and unwanted sound in the air.
Noise pollutants therefore include
the followings: blowing of vehicles
horns sounds from factories, loud
music, foundries, electric
generators, sounds from mosque,
some churches bomb blasts, cannon
and artillery gum fires.
Sources of noise pollutants
•Low flying aircraft.
•Factory or industrial noise
•Automobiles
•Locomotive engines
•Car horns and sirens
•Guns of various types
•Bombs; especially atomic bombs.
•Musical sets, Radio and television tuned to highest
volume.
•Noise from generating plants
•Noise from thunderstorms.
Effects of noise pollution
•It causes restlessness as it quickens heartbeat and blood circulation.
•It causes headache and discomfort
•It could prevent some people from sleeping.
•Prolonged high-intensity noise can damage ear drums and causes
deafness.
Control of noise pollution
•Legislation should be made against the use of loud speakers in
public places
•There should be installation of sound proofs in industries and
generators
•Rail ways and airports should be sited far away from residential
areas.
•There should be reduction of noise from loud speakers and car
sirens
•In Quarries, airport and factories where noise levels cannot be
reduced, ear-muffs should be used.
EVALUATION
•Define (i) pollution (ii) pollutant
•List the different types of pollution
•Explain the nature and sources of air
pollutants
•Outline five Air pollutants and explain their
effects on man.
•Explain ways of controlling air pollutant.
 WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the process whereby harmful
waste materials are deposited into water bodies
making unfit for aquatic life and human
consumption.

Sources of water pollution

Water bodies such as estuaries, rivers, streams,
lakes and seas get polluted when diverse
materials and toxic wastes from domestic and
industrial activities of man are dumped into
them. Rain water also get polluted as carbon
(iv)oxide from the air get dissolve into it.
INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTANTS THAT RUN INTO STREAMS, RIVERS, OR LAKES CAN HAVE SERIOUS
EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE, PLANTS, AND HUMANS. IN THE UNITED STATES THERE ARE STRICT
RULES FOR THE AMOUNT AND COMPOSITION OF SUBSTANCES THAT FACTORIES CAN RELEASE
INTO BODIES OF WATER. THESE RULES ARE NOT ALWAYS ENFORCED, AND MUCH INDUSTRIAL
WATER POLLUTION COMES FROM ACCIDENTAL CHEMICAL OR OIL SPILLS.
Types of water pollution
•Refuse and sewage.
•Industrial waste.
•Agricultural wastes (herbicides, pesticides,
insecticides and fertilizers)
•Crude oil spillage

Life of plants and animals in water

bodies and even eliminated by water
pollutants.
Effects of oil spillage
When oil tankers are loading and off –loading, some
of the oil spills and get back to the river and
estuaries. Explosion at offshore rigs releases great
quantities of oil and when oil tankers wreckages
results in oil spillage.

Oil spillage can cripple economic life of fisherman

and farmers in affected areas. The spilled oil forms a
coat on the surface of the water cutting off oxygen
supply from plants and animals in the water.

Spilled oil also contaminates the source of drinking

water for inhabitants of such areas thereby making
life difficult and uncomfortable.
DESTRUCTIVE OIL SPILL
THE PRESTIGE, AN AGING, SINGLE-HULLED OIL TANKER, RUPTURED IN A STORM OFF THE COAST OF NORTHWESTERN SPAIN ON NOVEMBER 13, 2002. THE
TANKER SANK SIX DAYS LATER, SPILLING MILLIONS OF LITERS OF OIL THAT FOULED BEACHES FROM NORTHWESTERN SPAIN TO SOUTHWESTERN FRANCE.
DESTRUCTIVE OIL SPILL
THE PRESTIGE, AN AGING, SINGLE-HULLED OIL TANKER, RUPTURED IN A STORM OFF THE COAST OF NORTHWESTERN SPAIN ON NOVEMBER 13, 2002. THE
TANKER SANK SIX DAYS LATER, SPILLING MILLIONS OF LITERS OF OIL THAT FOULED BEACHES FROM NORTHWESTERN SPAIN TO SOUTHWESTERN FRANCE.
Control of water pollution
•Refuse and sewage should be treated and efficiently disposed.
•Enlightenment of public on proper disposal of human faeces,
wine and domestic refuses.
•Indiscriminate dumping of industrial wastes in water bodies
should be avoided. Recycling of industrial effluents should be
encouraged.
•Farmers should be educated on proper use of fertilizers,
pesticides, insecticides ad herbicides.
•All necessary precaution should be employed to avert oil
spillage.
OBJECTIVE TEST
•Which of the following is air pollutant (a ) detergent (b) crude oil (c)
untreated sewage (d) smoke
•Which of these is not an Air pollutant? (a) carbon (ii) dioxide (b) oxide
of nitrogen (c) carbon (iv) oxide (d) sulphur (iv) oxide
•One of these cannot cause noise pollution? (a) smoke (b) high intensity
and unpleasant noise (c) industrial (d) actions (d) generation
•One of these is false (a) soil is polluted by clearing refuse dumps (b) oil
spillage cripples economic life of fishermen (c)water pollution is
dangerous to water supply (d) noise pollution may cause restlessness
•Long term effects of air pollution does not include (a) lung cancer (b)
irritation of the eyes (c)chronic respiratory diseases (d) heat damage
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
•Define soil pollution
•State three sources of soil
•State three effects of soil pollution
•Give three control measures of soil pollution.