Animal food product

processing
 Fish as food
Many species of fish are consumed as food in virtually all regions around
the world. Fish has been an important source of protein and other
nutrients for humans throughout history.
In culinary and fishery contexts, fish may include shellfish, such as
molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms.
Europe, Japan and the United States of America together accounted for
47 percent of the world’s total food fish consumption in 1961 but only
about 20 percent in 2015. Of the global total of 149 million tonnes in
2015, Asia consumed more than two-thirds.
Freshwater fishes: Rohu, Catla, Hilsa etc.
Marine fishes: Anchovy, Tuna, Salmon etc.
 Post mortem changes in fish
On the death of the fish, processes of physical and chemical change caused by
enzymes and micro-organisms begin to occur. The complete decay of the fish is the
final result of those changes.
Post-mortem changes which take place in fish tissue occur in the following phases:
• slime secretion on the surface of fish
• rigor mortis
• autolysis as enzymatic decomposition of tissues
• microbiological spoilage
The duration of each phase can change or phases can overlap. This depends on
storage conditions, especially the temperature which greatly influences these
processes.
• Slime secretion:
Slime is formed in certain cells of fish skin and the process becomes very active just after fish
death. Some of the fish, for example eel, secrete more slime than, for comparison, Salmon
and perch. The quantity of slime reaches 2-3% of the fish mass and that in turn creates
problems during processing. The secretion process stops with the onset of rigor mortis. Slime
contains large amounts of nitrogenous compounds and these provide good nourishment for
micro-organisms originating from the environment. Therefore, the slime spoils quickly: first
giving an unpleasant smell to the fish, and second opening the way for further and deeper
bacterial penetration into the fish.
• Rigor mortis
Rigor mortis is a result of complicated biochemical reactions which cause muscle fibres to
shorten and tighten, and finally the fish becomes stiff. Rigor mortis has many technological
consequences. The time rigor mortis begins and its duration depend on the fish species (e.g.,
for carp at 0° C it starts after 48 hours, for roach and perch at 0° C after 24 hours), on the fish
catching technique, and on fish temperature. Fish body temperature is a decisive factor in
the onset and duration of the rigor mortis process. The higher the temperature the sooner it
begins and the faster it ceases. This is evidenced by enzymatic reactions whose speed
increases with increased temperature.
• Autolysis
On the death of the fish, a complicated biochemical process starts, leading to a decomposition of basic
compounds of tissues which takes place under the influence of enzymes. This decomposition involves
proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. Its intensity is not the same for all compounds and the decomposition of
one can influence the decomposition of the others. The quality of fish as a raw material for consumption or
for processing depends largely on proteolysis, that is, the decomposition of proteins. This process follows
rigor mortis. During autolysis, great changes occur in the structure of muscle tissue which becomes softer. In
small fish, perforation of the belly occurs. From the technological view, it is negative because the proteolysis
process leads to a decrease in the capacity of tissue to retain tissue juice, resulting in toughness of texture of
the final product. The degradation of proteins creates ideal conditions for the growth of spoilage bacteria.
• Microbiological decomposition
The muscle tissue of live fish is generally sterile but bacteria thrive in the alimentary tract and on the skin,
and from there they penetrate into the muscles; for example, through the blood vessels. This process is
further favoured by structural changes in the tissue as a result of rigor mortis and autolysis. Bacteria are able
to decompose proteins, but products of proteolysis such as amino-acids and other low-molecular
nitrogenous compounds provide better nourishment. Thus it was found that, due to lower content of these
substances, freshwater fish tissue undergoes microbiological decomposition more slowly than marine fish
tissue. Low temperature strongly inhibits the activity of micro-organisms in which case the autolysis process
dominates.
 Drying and canning of fish
• The main objective of canning is to obtain a shelf-stable product that can be
stored in suitable containers for a considerable length of time (at least two
years) without undergoing food spoilage, while retaining desirable nutritional
and sensory qualities.
To achieve satisfactory shelf-life the following conditions must be observed:
The contents of the cans must be commercially sterilized.
The inside of the can must be resistant to and damaging effects from the
contents and the outside must be resistant to corrosion under reasonable
storage conditions.
The can ends must be sealed to prevent ingress of water and/or air or any form
of contamination
 Canning
Canning is a relatively modern technology which enables man to preserve food in an edible condition under a wide
range of storage conditions for long periods - from a few months to several years. Essentially, the process involves
hermetically sealing the food in a container, heat 'sterilising' the sealed unit and cooling it to ambient temperature for
subsequent storage.
• Fish, being a physically delicate food and, therefore, easily damaged and fragmented by mechanical handling
operations, are still largely packed into cans or other retortable containers by hand, with brine, edible oil or sauce
which may be metered in mechanically. Often, the fish, after the usual heading, gutting, cleaning and trimming
operations, are subjected to pre-processing operations such as salting, brining, drying, smoking, cooking or a
combination of these. Such pre-processing operations have the advantages of:
(a) denaturing the proteins and thus rendering the fish muscle firmer and more capable of withstanding handling during
the filling operation; and
(b) removing water from the fish making them less subject to shrinkage and unsightly aqueous exudation inside the can
during heat treatment.

• Canned fish is famous for the way it is packed so tightly within the container, leaving very little space for additional
liquids.
• Heat transfer through the fish is by conduction and, therefore, very slow; at a processing temperature of 121°C, it
would take 6 hours to raise the centre temperature from 10 to 100°C by conduction alone. In this time, the fish
nearest the walls of the container would be overcooked. By comparison, if all the heat could be transferred by
convection, in the same size can under the same conditions, it would only take 20 minutes to achieve the same
temperature rise at the can centre. Obviously, it is best to have the fish surrounded by liquid so that the distance
through which heat is transferred by conduction is kept to a minimum.
 Drying

• Natural drying:
The energy of the sun and/or the wind is used in many countries to dry fish. To obtain the best possible rate of
drying under natural conditions, several factors should be considered:
(i) Air movement at ground level is usually very slow; if fish are raised above the ground, by even one metre, the air
movement is greater.
(iii) Fish placed on racks above the ground are less likely to be contaminated by dust or sand; fish placed on mats
on the ground are likely to be contaminated by dust kicked up by people walking past. Raised racks provide some
protection from animals.
(v) Sloping racks allow any surplus water on the surface of the fish to drain away. Water trapped in the gill or body
cavities can cause localised spoilage and/or increase the drying time.
The use of drying racks obviously has many advantages. However, they should be located to take the maximum
advantage of climatic conditions:
(i) low lying swampy areas with a high relative humidity should be avoided and
(ii) racks should be sited away from forests or high buildings which will reduce the air movement or cast a shadow
over the racks.
Salted fish will take up moisture from the surrounding air if the relative humidity rises above 75 per cent. It may,
therefore, be necessary to remove the fish from the racks at night, or during rain, when the humidity tends to rise.
If the fish are piled and covered in plastic overnight, the absorption of water is minimised until the fish can be put
out for further drying the next day. If the fish are press-piled at night by placing weights on top of a stack of fish,
movement of water to the surface of the fish is encouraged and the subsequent drying rate will be increased.
• Mechanical driers
Several types of mechanically powered driers have been developed and used commercially in different parts of the
world. Fish are dried in a fan driven air-stream; the air is usually heated and, in some cases, the air can be
recirculated to control the relative humidity.
• Freeze drying
Evaporation of moisture from fish placed in a vacuum quickly cools the fish due to the transfer of heat energy. The
fish freeze after about 15 per cent of the water has evaporated. If the fish are allowed to freeze during drying, they
do not shrink and will dry with an open porous structure. They will rapidly reconstitute to look very similar to fresh
fish although the water will not be as tightly bound as in fresh fish. If heat is applied to the fish in a vacuum drier
and they are not allowed to freeze, shrinkage similar to that found in normal air dried fish occurs.
For rapid freeze drying, some heat must be supplied to the fish if evaporation is to proceed at a rapid rate. Moisture
must also be removed from the vacuum chamber, otherwise it will become saturated and no further drying will be
possible.
Freeze drying requires a high energy input and is only feasible for very high value products. Freeze dried products
have the advantage that they can be stored under ambient conditions as long as the packaging is impervious to
water.
• Solar driers
Considerable interest has been shown in the development of solar powered driers in recent years. In these, the
heat of the sun is collected and concentrated to produce elevated temperatures and an increased rate of drying.
Raising the air temperature increases the amount of water the air can hold, thus the relative humidity will be
reduced and the air will be able to absorb additional water vapour. In the humid tropics, the relative humidity is
often too high for rapid natural drying and it is hoped that solar powered units which are simple, inexpensive and
efficient can be developed for drying fish.