Unit 3: Stages of Motor learning

KIN 322

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Questions from Last Day
• Radial Error vs Radical Error
• Absolute vs Constant Error
• Absolute- magnitude so do not consider + and – values
• Constant error- direction, need to consider the sign of the number
• Error Measurement- golf example
• Would still be a bias error technically- no problem learning the skill, but need
to adapt the skill
Error measurement
• Consistency errors = difficulty in learning the skill
• Bias errors = difficulty in adapting the skill

Show of Hands:
A B If distances to the left are –
ve and to the right are +ve,
which scenario presents
• The most variable error?
• The largest constant
error?
CONSISTENCY ERRORS BIAS ERRORS
Magill & Anderson 2017 Adapted from Figure 2.4
 Review!

Computer: Mobile:
PollEv.com/shaundaarsenie376 Text SHAUNDAARSENIE376 to 37607
 Stages of
motor
1. Learn two different models of motor
learning: learning
Learning 2. Recognize observable changes that
objectives occur with learning
3. Know three similarities between experts
Introduction to Stages of Motor Learning

• Think of learning a new skill like solving a problem

• People progress through ___distinct stages_______as they
learn a motor skill
• Ie) As they progress from being a beginner to being highly
skilled
• Two models proposed to identify and describe the stages
• 1. Fitts and Posner Three-Stage Model
• 2. Gentile Two-Stage Model
 • Model was introduced in 1967
• Continues to be referred to in
Motor Control and Learning
Fitts and • Motor Skill involves three stages
Posner 3-
stage model

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Fitts and Posner 3-stage

model
1. Cognitive stage
• Beginner focuses on solving
cognitively-oriented
problems
• Cognitive effort required to
focus on movement,
feedback, & intentions
• __High___ amount of error Screenshot from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Tva4E5g5tTo

and variance
Fitts and Posner 3-stage model
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tva4E5g5tTo

2.Associative (refining) stage

• Works to refine performance
• Less thought
• Associations between
__environment________ and
__movements_____ are made
• Fewer errors, more consistency
Screenshot from:

• “Refining stage”
• Focus on becoming more consistent from one
attempt to another
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
Fitts and Posner 3-stage model

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tva4E5g5tTo
Screenshot from:
3.Autonomous stage
• Skill is almost automatic
• Low variance and/or errors
• Performers can detect and
correct their own errors
• Perform the skill without
conscious thought
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
Fitts and Posner 3-stage model

Stages of learning are on a continuum

• Gradual transition between stages

Cognitive Associative Autonomous

stage stage stage

Time spent practicing

Beginner Expert
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Progression through stages depends

Fitts and on:
Posner 3-stage 1. Skill being learned
model 2. Practice conditions
3. Personal characteristics of
learner
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Fitts and Posner

Models of 3-stage model
motor
learning
Gentile’s 2-stage
model
Gentile’s 2
stage model: Motor learning progresses through Two
Stages and is presented from the
Regulatory perspective of the goal of the learner in
conditions each stage.
defined

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Type of Closed Skills-
• Stable/ Stationary
Skills • Nothing in the environment
changes or moves
• Involves a stationary supporting
surface, object and/ or other
people
• Performer initiates the
movements involved in
performing the skill
• Ie) buttoning a shirt, picking up a
cup when seated at a table,
shooting a stationary target
Open Skills-
• unstable/ dynamic
• Environment in which
supporting surfaces, objects
and/or other people are in
motion when the skill is
performed
• Performer must time the
initiation of their movements
with an external feature
• Environment features
determine when to begin action
• Ie) Surfing, striking a moving
target, catching a thrown object
Gentile’s 2-stage model

1. Initial stage
• 2 Goals:
i. Acquire movement
coordination pattern to
match regulatory
conditions
ii. Discriminate between Image from: mobygames.com

regulatory and non-

regulatory conditions
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
Gentile’s 2-stage model

2.Later stage
• 3 Goals:
i. Develop capability of adapting
movement pattern Image from: billboard.com

ii. Increase consistency

iii.Improve efficiency of movement

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Gentile’s Two- Stage Model (Cont)
• Later Stages- the goals depend on the type of skill being learned
• Closed Skills require _fixation___ of movement patterns
• Refire initial stage movement pattern to consistency repeat optimal movement pattern to
achieve action goal
• Learner works toward developing the capability to perform the movement pattern with
little to no conscious effort, and minimum physical energy
• No time constraints to prepare/plan
• Open Skills require ____Diversification____ of movement pattern
• Refine initial stage of movement pattern to enable application to changing environmental
context (temporal and spatial)
• Learner must become attuned to the regulatory conditions and sacquire the capability to
modify movements to meet their constantly changing demands on the performer
• Time constraints limit the ability to prepare- need to act quickly
EXAMPLES
• Initial Phase
• Focus on achieving the action goal--> Developing the basic movement coordination pattern
• Establish practice situations that provide opportunities to discriminate between regulatory
and non-regulatory characteristics
• Later Stage
• Closed Skills- Cove
• Practice situations similar as possible to everyday world/environment
• Ie). Writing with the same pen on the same surface, shooting basketball free throws in the same
environment as the game, shooting arrows under match conditions
• Open Skills- Open waters
• In practice vary the controllable regulatory conditions pf the performance situation, letting other
characteristics occur normally
• Ie) walking down a hallway- control the number of people, but the people walk at whatever speed /
direction they want
 Stages of
motor
1. Learn two different models of motor
learning: learning
Learning 2. Recognize observable changes that
objectives occur with learning
3. ow three similarities between experts
Performer and Performance Changes Across the Stages
of Learning

• Stages of learning models describe distinct characteristics at

each learning stage that change across the stages
• Observable changes are noted for both the person and the
skill performance
• Benefits of considering these characteristics:
• Provides a closer look at the skill learning process
• Establishes why we need to develop different instruction
strategies for people in different learning stages
Performer and Performance Changes Across the
Stages of Learning (Cont’)* Only learn the bolded
1. Changes in rate of improvement
2. Changes in movement coordination
3. Changes in altering an old or preferred coordination pattern
4. Changes in muscle used to perform the skill
5. Changes in Energy Cost
6. Changes in achieving the Kinematic goals of the skill
7. Changes in visual selective attention
8. Change in conscious attention with performing a skill
9. Changes in error detection and correction capability
10. Changes in Brain Activity
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Rate of improvement

Some measurable
Developing coordination patterns
changes that occur
with learning
* These are Attention demands

Brain activity
Rate of learning: Power law of practice
(Snoddy, 1926)

• Mathematical description of
large improvements during
early practice followed by
smaller improvements during
later practice
• _Negatively___ accelerated
pattern is most typical of motor
learning
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
Rate of learning: Power law of practice
(Crossman, 1959)

• Examined time taken to

make one cigar based on
experience making cigars
(time at the cigar making
factory)
• Most improvement within
first two years
• Some improvement still
seen after seven years Figure 12.2

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Changes in rate of improvement
• Rate of improvement differences between early and late
practice are due, in part, to the amount of possible
improvement

EARLY LATE
PRACTICE
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Rate of improvement

Some measurable Developing coordination

changes that occur patterns
with learning
* These are Attention demands

Brain activity
Developing coordination patterns:
Degrees of freedom problem
• Learners decrease the degrees of freedom (DoF) at
beginning stages of learning
• “Freezing“ reduces the complexity of movement in
order to achieve movement goal (Bernstein, 1967)
• As learning progresses, joints become “unfrozen” and
muscles operate in a functional synergy for optimal
performance
• E.g. baby throwing a ball vs. professional baseball player

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Developing coordination patterns:
Solving the degrees of freedom problem
(Anderson & Sidaway, 1994)

• Examined changes in hip-knee

coordination patterns of
beginner soccer players with
practice
• Initial movement showed
limited knee flexion
• With practice, player’s
developed a knee-hip
functional synergy
• Resulted in increased kicking
Figure 5.2
velocity
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Rate of improvement

Some measurable
Developing coordination patterns
changes that occur
with learning
* These are Attention demands

Brain activity
Changes in attention demands

• Fitts and Posner model

• Cognitive stage: early learner thinks about almost every
part of performance
• Autonomous stage: skilled learners may be able to
perform that skill automatically
• General performance characteristics of motor
learning
• Attention demands _reduce with time_
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
Attention and automaticity

LOW HIGH
Automaticity

A Novice Expert A

LESS Additional MORE

attentional
resources
(Magill & Anderson 2021)
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Rate of improvement

Some measurable
Developing coordination patterns
changes that occur
with learning
* These are Attention demands

Brain activity
Changes in brain activity

• 2 circuits (Doyon et al., 2003):

1. Cortico-cerebello-thalamo-cortical
• More involved in early learning
2. Cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical
• More involved in well-learned skills

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Changes in brain activity
• Neuroplasticity supports motor learning
• Primary motor cortex
• Somatosensory cortex
• Excitability changes with learning
• Earliest changes in somatosensory cortex
• Changes in somatosensory cortex can predict the extent of
learning

(Magill & Anderson 2021) Figure 1 modified from Ohashi, Gribble & Ostry 2019
Changes in brain activity

As learning progresses:
• Cortical activity reduces with automaticity (Gobel,
Parrish & Reber, 2011)
• Neural structure changes (Zatorre, Fields & Johansen-Berg 2012)
• Grey matter density increases
• White matter organization changes

(Magill & Anderson 2021)

 Stages of
motor 1. Learn two different models of motor
learning: learning
Learning 2. Recognize observable changes that
occur with learning
objectives 3. Know three similarities between
experts
Expertise

• An ”expert”- a person who is located at the extreme right end of

the learning stages continuum
• Experts in all skill performance areas have in common some
distinct characteristics
• Amount and type of practice that resulted in expertise
• Knowledge structure (organize concepts)
• Use of _vision__
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Similarities between experts

1. Amount and type of practice leading to expertise

• Deliberate practice designed to improve specific
aspects through repetition and refinement
(Ericsson et al, 1993)
• Expertise is domain specific (Erricsson & Smith,
1991)
• 10,000 hours of practice makes you an expert
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Similarities between experts

2. Knowledge structure
• More knowledge about that movement
• Different organization of knowledge
• Better memory of discrete events
• More rules for _decision making_
• Faster, more accurate decisions
(Magill & Anderson 2021)

Similarities between experts

3. Use of vision
• Search environment __faster__
• Select more meaningful information in a shorter
amount of time
• Relevance
• Total number of things considered in the
environment
 Stages of
motor
1. Learn two different models of motor
learning: learning
Learning 2. Recognize observable changes that
objectives occur with learning
3. Know three similarities between experts
 • Magill R, & Anderson D. (2021). Motor Learning and Control: Concepts and
Applications. 11th edition. McGrawHill Education, New York, New York.
• Chapter 12
• Crossman, ERFW. (1959). A theory of the acquisition of speed skill.
Ergonomics, 2, 153-166.
• Anderson & Sidaway. (1994). Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 65:
93-99. Copyright 1994 American Association for Health Physical Education,
Recreation, and Dance.
• Ohashi, H., Gribble, P. L., & Ostry, D. J. (2019). Somatosensory cortical
excitability changes precede those in motor cortex during human motor
learning. Journal of Neurophysiology, 122(4), 1397-1405.
References: • Doyon, J., Penhune, V., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2003). Distinct contribution of
the cortico-striatal and cortico-cerebellar systems to motor skill learning.
Neuropsychologia, 41(3), 252-262.
• Gobel, E. W., Parrish, T. B., & Reber, P. J. (2011). Neural correlates of skill
acquisition: decreased cortical activity during a serial interception
sequence learning task. NeuroImage, 58(4), 1150-1157.
• Zatorre, R. J., Fields, R. D., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2012). Plasticity in gray
and white: neuroimaging changes in brain structure during learning.
Nature neuroscience, 15(4), 528-536.
REMINDERS
• Quiz next Tuesday. Open from 8:00 am- 7:59 am
Wednesday
• Open book
• Can use the full 24 hours if you want
• Covering Weeks 1, 2, 3
• 10 multiple choice questions
• On Canvas