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Metrology
by
Prof S. Ghosh
Professor in Mechanical Engg.
IIT Delhi
09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 1

Inspection by Measurement
Direct Measurement
◦ Vernier Caliper, Vernier Height
gauge, Verneir Depth gauge
◦ Outside Micrometer, Inside
Micrometer, Depth Micrometer,
◦ Slip gauges (gauge blocks), length
bars,etc.
Indirect Measurement
◦ Comparators
Micrometer
Micrometer works on the principle of nut and
screw.
When the screw is rotated by one revolution, the
nut advances by one pitch distance.
Calculation of the least count of a micrometer
The Micrometer has a screw of 0.5 mm pitch
with a thimble graduated in 50 divisions to
provide a direct reading of
Least count (LC) = Pitch/n = 0.5/50 = 0.01
mm

Micrometer
Micrometer total reading =
Main scale reading + Reading on the
thimble * L.C

A micrometer is composed of the following parts:
Frame – It is the C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in
constant relation to each other. The frame is heavy and has high
thermal mass. To prevent substantial heating up, it is covered by
insulating plastic.
Anvil – The shiny part the spindle moves toward and the sample rests
against.
Barrel – Stationary round component with a linear scale on it.
Screw – Found inside the barrel and is considered the heart of the
micrometer.
Locknut – Component that one can tighten to hold the spindle
stationary.
Spindle – Shiny cylindrical component that causes the thimble to move
toward the anvil.
Ratchet Stop – The device on the end of the handle that limits applied
pressure by slipping at a calibrated torque

Depth Measuring Micrometers

Slip gauge Box

Slip gauges
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of high
grade steel with close tolerance.
They are hardened to ensure sufficient
resistance to wear.
They are then stabilized by heating and
cooling successively in stages so that
hardening stresses are removed.
After being hardened they are carefully
Finished by high grade lapping.

Slip gauge
Slip gauges are normally finished to a high
degree of flatness and accuracy.
Flat surface required for accurate reading.
The cross section of these gauges is 9 x
30 mm for size upto 10 mm
And 9 x 35 mm for larger size.

Slip gauge
Slip gauges are used
To get the high accuracy
To check the accuracy of vernier calliper,
micrometer and other such measuring
instruments.
To measure angle.

Comparators
Comparing the manufactured part to the
master part envisaged by the designer
Dimensional variation from the master
part can be amplified and measured so as
to get the deviation and the instruments
for doing that are called comparators
◦ Mechanical Comparators
◦ Optical Comparators
◦ Pneumatic Comparators

Design Considerations
The instrument must be sufficiently
robust
The system response should be faster
The contact plunger should be provided
with a hardened steel or diamond to
minimize wear & tear
Means should be provided for easy lifting
of the plunger

Design Considerations
Magnification should be as high as
possible, but it should also be capable of
measuring the wide range
The recording scale should be linear
The system should have good
repeatability
Comparator should be versatile

Mechanical Comparators
Dial Indicators

Mechanism of Mechanical
Amplifiers
Use of rack and pinion in Dial Gauge Comparator

Mechanism of Mechanical Amplifiers
Use of Lever mechanism

Procedure for Setting up the Mechanical
dial indicator
1. Mount dial gauge firmly

on its stand
2. Mount stand securely,
to prevent damage from
dropping or excessive
vibration
3. Keep spindle at right
angles (perpendicular)
to the surface being
checked.

Taking Reading properly from the dial
indicator
1. Read the whole millimetres
from the inner scale (only for
absolute measurements)
2. Read the tenths of

millimetres (numbers on
outer scale)
3. Read the hundredths of

millimetres (small divisions on
outer scale).

Example
Step 1
Step 1 Step 3
Read the whole millimetres. The short
needle is between the 4 and the 5, so the
reading is 4.00 mm.
Step 2
Read the tenths. The long needle is
between the 0.20 and the 0.30 mm, so
the reading is 0.20 mm.
Step 3 Step 2
The long needle is 6 small divisions

past the 20, so the reading is 0.06
mm.
19
Reading the dial indicator
Step 4
4.00 mm 0.20 mm
To get the final measurement
- add up the measurements
from Steps 1, 2, & 3.
Step 1 4.00 mm
Step 2 + 0.20 mm
Step 3 + 0.06 mm 0.06 mm
Total = 4.26 mm

Johansson Mikrokator developed by H.
Abramson

Schematic of Johansson
Mikrokater
A metallic strip (phosphor bronze with rectangular
cross section) is twisted and fixed between two ends
as shown. Any longitudinal movement (in either
direction) will cause the central portion of the strip to
stretch, thereby changing the angle of the pointer. One
end of the strip is fixed and the other end is fixed to the
bell crank lever (spring elbow).
The bell crank lever, in turn, is connected to a plunger,

which moves upwards or downwards. The bell crank
causes the twisted strip to change length whenever
there is a movement in the plunger.
This change in length will result in a proportional

amount of twist of the metallic strip. The magnification
can be varied by changing the length of the spring
elbow. Accuracy of the instrument is within 1%
Sigma Comparator

Sigma Comparator

Sigma Comparator
It is mechanical
comparator provides
mechanical amplification
in the range of 300 to
5000.
It consist of a plunger
attached to a rectangular
bar which is supported on
the ends by two flat steel
springs (split diaphragm).
This provide frictionless
linear movement.

Sigma Comparator
The plunger carries the knife edge which bear upon
the face of mounting blocks of cross strip hinge.
The moving block carries a light metal y- forked
arms. A thin phosphor bronze flexible band is
fastened to the ends of the forked arms which is
wrapped about a small driving drum to turn a long
pointer needle.
27
Sigma Comparator
Any vertical movement of the plunger
makes the knife edge move the block of
cross strip lever over the pivot.
This causes the rotation of the y-arms.
The metallic band attached to the arms
makes the driving drum and hence the
pointer to rotate.

Sigma Comparator:
 If the length of the arm is ‘L’ & the distance
from the hinge pivot to the knife edge is ‘X’, then
first stage of magnification is L/X
To the extremities to the Y arm is attached a
phosphor bronze band or strip which is passed
around a drum of radius r attached to a pointer
spindle. If the pointer is of length R, then the 2nd
stage of magnification is R/r
And the total magnification is : L/X x R/r

Optical Comparator
Condenser lens focusses
the right amount of light
onto the index
the image of an index is
projected on a scale on the
inner surface of a
ground-glass screen

Optical Comparator
In this system, Mechanical amplification = L2/L1and
Optical amplification = 2(L4/L3).
It is multiplied by 2, because if mirror is tilted by an

angle 60, then image will be tilted by 2 x 60.
Thus it is obvious that optical comparators are capable

of giving a high degree of measuring precision owing
to high magnification and the reduction of moving
members to minimum.
Further these possess better wear resistance qualities

as the only wearing members are the plunger and its
guide and the mirror pivot bearing.
Optical Comparator
Another advantage of the optical comparators is that
provision of an illuminated scale enables readings to be
taken without regard to the room lighting conditions.
The point of importance in optical comparator is that

mirror used must be of front reflection type and not of
normal back reflection type.
In normal back reflection type there are two reflected

images, one each from front and back. Thus the reflected
image is not well defined one, as one bright and other
blurred image are observed.
If front reflection type of mirror is used,

considerable care to be taken to avoid
damage to the reflecting surfaces.
Zeiss Ultra optimeter

The optical system of this instrument involves double
reflection of light and thus gives higher degree of
magnification.
A light source sends light rays to green filter, which filters all
but green light, which is less fatiguing to the eye.
The green light then passes to a condenser which via an

index projects it on to a movable mirror M1, whence it is
reflected to another fixed mirror M2, and then back again to
the first moveable mirror.
The objective lens brings the reflected beam from the first
mirror to a focus at a transparent graticule containing a
precise scale which is viewed by the eye-piece.
The projected image of index line on the graticule can
be adjusted by means of screw in order to set the
zero.
When correctly adjusted, the image of the index line is

seen against that of the graticule scale.
The special end of the contact plunger rests against

the outer end of the first movable mirror so that any
vertical movement of the plunger will tilt the mirror.
The extreme sensitivity of this instrument necessitates

special precautions in its operation to avoid
temperature effects.
Pneumatic circuit diagram for solex
pneumatic comparator

Pneumatic comparator
09/13/23 Prof.P.V.Rao I.I.T Delhi 37

Pneumatic comparator principle
It works on the principle of pressure
difference generated by the air flow.
Air is supplied at constant pressure through

the orifice and the air escapes in the form of
jets through a restricted space which exerts
a back pressure.
The variation in the back pressure is then

used to find the dimensions of a component.

Pneumatic comparator working
As shown in figure the air is compressed in the
compressor at high pressure which is equal to Water
head, H.
The excess air escapes in the form of bubbles.
Then the metric amount of air is passed through the

orifice at the constant pressure.
Due to restricted area, at A1 position, the back

pressure is generated by the head of water displaced
in the manometer tube.
To determine the roundness of the job, the job is

rotated along the jet axis, if no variation in the pressure
reading is obtained then we can say that the job is
Pneumatic comparator working
Then the same procedure is repeated at various positions
A2, A3, A4, position and variation in the pressure reading
is found out.
Also the diameter is measured at position A1
corresponding to the portion against two jets and diameter
is also measured at various positions along the length of
the bore.
Any variation in the dimension changes the value of h, e.g.

Change in dimension of 0.002 mm changes the value of h
from 3 to 20 mm.
Moderate and constant supply pressure is required to

have the high sensitivity of the instrument.
Angular Measurements
Angle Measuring Devices: Bevel Protractors &
Angle Gauges measure the angle between the
surfaces of a part or assembly
Bevel Protractor: It normally can read about 5

minutes of a degree. It consists of a sliding
blade which can be set at some value with
respect to the stock. The reading can be
obtained with the help of main scale and
Vernier scale.

Angle Gauges
A series of fixed angles are used for comparative
assessment of angle between two surfaces
By making use of different permutations &

combinations, we could set an angle nearest to 3”. The
dimensions of the angle gauges are 75 mm length &
16 mm width.
The set consists of 10, 30, 90, 270 & 410

1’, 3’, 9’, 27’ and 3”, 6”, 18”, 30”.

Angle Gauges

Sine Bar
A sine bar is a high precision angle measuring
instrument. It is used in conjunction with other
accessories such as slip gauges, angle gauges, etc.
Itconsists of a bar carrying two rollers set at a known

centre distance. The options are 100 mm, 200 mm,
300 mm etc.
They are available in several designs.

Sine Bar

09/13/23 Prof.S. Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 48
Sine Bar used for Small Component

Sine Bar used for Large Component

Measurement of taper angle
Outside Taper
Inside Taper

Sine Centre

Autocollimator
Autocollimators are used to detect small
misalignments
If a parallel beam of light is projected from the
collimating lens and if a plane reflector R is set up
normal to the direction of the beam, light will be
reflected back along the same path and light will be
brought back to focus exactly at the position of the
light source

Autocollimator contd..
If the reflector is tilted through a small angle  the
parallel beam will be reflected through twice the
angle (2) and would be brought to focus in the same
plane as the light source but to one side of it. The
image will not coincide but there will be a distance
equal to focal length times the angle of reflection
(2f) where f is the focal length of the collimating
lens.

Autocollimator contd..
The distance between the reflector and the lens has
no effect on the separation between the source and
the image.
For high sensitivity, a long focal length is required
Although the distance of the reflector does not affect
the reading, if it is moved too far back, reflected rays
will miss the lens completely and no image will be
formed.

Optical System of an Autocollimator

Types of Gear Inspection
Element by Element Inspection of Gear:
Laborious, useful in error analysis, can’t
be used by the gear manufacturers.
◦ Tooth thickness measurement(1.by gear tooth
Vernier 2. constant chord method 3. base tangent method 4.
measurement by dimension over pins)
◦ Base pitch measurement
Composite Error Checking: Used in Gear
Inspection by conducting only one test
 Parkinson Gear Tester
GEAR TERMINOLOGY
pitch circle, theoretical circle based on which all calculations are done
p, Circular pitch, p the distance from one tooth to the next, along the pitch
circle. p=πD/N
M, module=D/N pitch circle/number of teeth
p= πM
P, Diametral Pitch P=N/D
pP= π
Gear Tooth Vernier used for tooth
thickness measurement

Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 09/13/23 61
W and h are thus analytically
calculated and then verified
by the gear tooth Vernier
measurements

Base Pitch Circle:
An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the
involutes that form the tooth profiles
For obtaining a correct meshing K1K2 of Gear 1
should be the same K1K2 of Gear 2
Base pitch = Circular pitchxpressure angle

BASE PITCH
This is defined as the circular pitch of
the teeth measured on the base circle.
In Fig., AB represents the portion of a
gear base circle, CD and EF the
sides of two teeth, FD being the base pitch.
From the property of involute, if any line as GH
is drawn to cut the involutes and tangential to
the base circle, then GH = FD.
Thus base pitch could also be defined as
equal to the linear distance between
a pair of involutes measured along a common generator.
Base pitch is the distance between tangents to the curved port

of any two adjacent teeth and can be measured either with a
height gauge or on an enlarged projected image of the teeth

Base Pitch Measuring Instrument

Schematic of the Base Pitch
Measuring Instrument

Base Pitch Measuring Instrument
consists of three tips as shown
One is the fixed measuring tip
other one is the sensitive tip whose position can
be adjusted by a screw
the third tip is the supplementary adjustable stop
which is meant for the stability of the instrument
The distance between the fixed and sensitive tip is set to

be equivalent to the base pitch of the gear with the help
of slip gauges.
The properly set-up instrument is applied to the gear so
that all the three tips contact the tooth profile. The reading
on dial indicator is the error in the base pitch
Parkinson Gear Tester

Schematic of the Parkinson Gear Tester
The principle of this device is to mount a standard gear on a

fixed vertical spindle and the gear to be tested on another
similar spindle mounted on a sliding carriage, maintaining
the gears in mesh by spring pressure. Movements of the
sliding carriage as the gears are rotated are indicated by a
dial indicator, and these variations are a measure of any
irregularities in the gear under test; alternatively a recorder
can be fitted, in the form of a waxed circular chart and
records made of the gear variation in accuracy of mesh.
Working principle of Parkinson Gear Tester
The gears are mounted on the two mandrels, so that they
are free to rotate without measurable clearance. The left
spindle can be moved along the table and clamped in any
desired position. The right mandrel slide is free to move,
running on steel balls, against spring pressure and it has a
limited movement. The two mandrels can be adjusted so
that their axial distance is equal to the designed gear centre
distance. The spring pressure can be regulated.
There are also screws for limiting the movement of the
sliding carriage. A scale is attached to one carriage and a
vernier to the other; this enables centre distances to be
measured to within 0.025 mm. The dial indicator on the left
contacts the left end of the sliding carriage and therefore
indicates any radial variations of the gear under test as
the gears are rotated
Working principle of Parkinson Gear Tester
– contd.
When the waxed paper recorder is fitted, the chart makes
a revolution for each one of the gears mounted on the
sliding carriage. As the chart moves or rotates, the line
traced records the movements of the floating carriage,
a circle is drawn at the same time as the record.
The figures shown in Fig. are reproduction of a few typical
charts with a reduced scale and the radial errors magnified
about 50 times. The gear shown by No. 1 record is a fully
satisfactory one, that at No. 2 is a moderate gear
at No. 3 is an unsatisfactory one.

Thread Inspection - Terminology
Pitch: It is the distance measured parallel to
the axis between the corresponding points on
adjacent surfaces in the same axial plane.
Lead: It is the axial distance advanced by the
thread in one revolution. Lead is equal to the
same multiples of pitches as the number of
starts.

Thread Inspection – Terminology
External Thread

Thread Terminology Contd..
Included angle: It is the angle between the flanks of
the thread measured in an axial plane.
Pitch diameter: It is the diameter of the imaginary

coaxial cylinder which intersects the surface of the
thread in such a manner that the intercept on the
generator of the cylinder is equal to half the pitch.

Thread Terminology Contd..
Major Diameter: It is the diameter of
imaginary coaxial cylinder that just touches
the crests
Minor Diameter: It is the diameter of
imaginary coaxial cylinder that just touches
the roots
Helix Angle 
tan  = p d

Different types of Threads

Thread Inspection
Measurement of Major Diameter: Bench micrometer
is normally used for this measurement.
Ithas measuring anvils so that the thread can be held

between them.
Ithas fiducial indicator so that the required pressure

can be applied for all the measurements

Bench Micrometer

RS = Micrometer reading over setting master.
R = micrometer reading of threaded work piece.
M = D ± (Difference between ‘R’ and ‘ RS’)

Thread Inspection
Measurement of Minor Diameter: Bench
micrometer can not be used for Minor
Diameter. So, another one, Floating Carriage
micrometer is normally used for this
measurement.
In this instrument, the thread is held between

the centres so that the influence of helix angle
can be nullified in this arrangement.
Use of V shaped Prisms for Measurement of Minor
Diameter

Thread Inspection
Measurement of Pitch (effective) Diameter: Again
Floating Carriage micrometer is normally used for
this measurement.
Here, the prisms used in the measurement of minor

diameter are replaced by the steel wires whose size is
chosen such that they pitch at the effective diameter.

Thread Inspection
Diameter of the best wires: If the wires used
make contact exactly at the pitch diameter,
then such wire is called the best wire. The
diameter of such wire can be estimated from
the formula.

Thread Inspection
Measurement of flank angle: Flank angle may be
measured using Tool Maker’s Microscope with a
goniometric head. This consists of glass screen with
datum lines which can be rotated through 3600. The
thread is mounted on centers and illuminated from
below.
The microscope is mounted above the thread in such
a way it can be swiveled such that the light beam is
projected along the line of the thread helix angle and
avoid any interference of the image
09/13/23 Prof.S. Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 87

Measurement of Internal Threads
Measurement of Major Diameter: The major diameter
of internal thread is normally measured using
horizontal comparator fitted with ball end styli of
radius less than the root radius of the thread to be
measured.
When the thread is mounted on a comparator, it
aligns itself with the axis of the machine and
measurement would be done along the helix of the
thread as indicated in the figure provided in the next
slide.

Measurement of Int. Threads

Measurement of Minor Diameter: Calibrated
rollers and slip gauges are used for this
measurement as shown below.

Measurement of Effective Diameter: The effective
diameter of internal thread is measured using the
horizontal comparator using ball ended styli of the
best size wire.
Measurement of Flank angle: The semi cast of the
thread form may be made using dental plaster and
measurement is obtained as done for external thread.

Thread Gauges
Thread inspection can also be carried out
using gauges designed according to the
Taylors Principles:
Limit gauges for Internal threads:
◦ Full form Go Gauge
◦ Truncated Effective Diameter NOGO gauge
◦ Minor Diameter NOGO gauge

Go & NoGo Gauges

Thread Gauges
Limit gauges for External threads:
◦ This is usually carried out using caliper type
gauges
◦ Full form Go Gauge (made to the high limits of
size.)
◦ Truncated Effective Diameter NOGO gauge
(made to the effective diameter low limit. Gauges
on a short length of thread only)
◦ Major Diameter NOGO gauge (plain caliper or
gap gauge made to the low limit of the thread
major diameter)

Thread Gauges Complete mesh
Purpose:
Measures the pitch of bolts and screws Correct
Instrument: fit
Click slide to
Use: See demonstration
1) Select either metric or imperial thread gauge

2) Select the appropriate gage Collision
3) Test the fit (See pictures to the right for
demonstration)
4) Select another gage if necessary
5) Check the other standard to make sure the bolt was Incorrect
not measured in the wrong units fit
Limit gauges for External threads

Limit gauge (Gap Gauge) for Major
Diameter

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Metrology

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Finished by high grade lapping.

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1. Mount dial gauge firmly

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2. Read the tenths of

3. Read the hundredths of

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The long needle is 6 small divisions

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The bell crank lever, in turn, is connected to a plunger,

This change in length will result in a proportional

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It is multiplied by 2, because if mirror is tilted by an

Thus it is obvious that optical comparators are capable

Further these possess better wear resistance qualities

The point of importance in optical comparator is that

In normal back reflection type there are two reflected

If front reflection type of mirror is used,

09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 33

The green light then passes to a condenser which via an

When correctly adjusted, the image of the index line is

The special end of the contact plunger rests against

The extreme sensitivity of this instrument necessitates

09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 36

09/13/23 Prof.P.V.Rao I.I.T Delhi 37

Air is supplied at constant pressure through

The variation in the back pressure is then

09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 38

Then the metric amount of air is passed through the

Due to restricted area, at A1 position, the back

To determine the roundness of the job, the job is

Any variation in the dimension changes the value of h, e.g.

Moderate and constant supply pressure is required to

Bevel Protractor: It normally can read about 5

09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 42

By making use of different permutations &

The set consists of 10, 30, 90, 270 & 410

09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 44

09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 45

Itconsists of a bar carrying two rollers set at a known

They are available in several designs.

09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 46

09/13/23 Prof.S.Ghosh I.I.T Delhi 47