UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN MINDANAO

KIDAPAWAN CITY CAMPUS

Sudapin, Kidapawan City

ELECTRONICS

PLAZA, ALEXANDER A.
College of Engineering
 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

This are the following points that we are discussing:

• The terms active and passive as applied to electronic
components
• Signal amplification , gain adjustment, and feedback in
amplifiers.
• Operation of amplifiers.
• Different types of amplifiers.
• The difference between digital and analog circuits.

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 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

•The instrument amplifier.

• Introduction to digital circuits.
• Conversion of analog signals to digital signals.

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 CHAPTER 4.1

INTRODUCTION

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 4.1 INTRODUCTION

• bipolar or metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) transistors, which

are active devices and can amplify signals.
• all of these devices are referred to as electronics.
• These transistors are manufactured on semiconductor material
(silicon or (gallium arsenide) called chips or integrated circuits.
• transistors can be made and interconnected on a single chip to
form a complete complex circuit function or system.

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 CHAPTER 4.2

ANALOG CIRCUITS

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 4.2 ANALOG CIRCUITS

• The study of electronic circuits, where the inputs and outputs

are continually varying, is known as analog electronics.

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 4.2.1 DISCRETE AMPLIFIERS

•Separate power transistors are used to do the amplication.

•Transistors can be used to make discrete amplifiers.
• The difference in the levels of the dc input and output
operating points, combined with the temperature drift,
requires capacitive isolation between each stage, as well as
with the application of direct resistive feedback.

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4.2.1 DISCRETE AMPLIFIERS

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 4.2.1 DISCRETE AMPLIFIERS

• A bipolar device is a current amplifier, and its gain is given by

• A MOS device has a transconductance (transfer admittance)

which is the change in the output current for a change in the
input voltage. The transconductance is given by

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 4.2.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

• The integrated circuit made it possible to interconnect

multiple active devices on a single chip to make an (op-amp).
• This is achieved by using pairs of devices to balance each
other’s characteristics, minimizing temperature drift, and
complementary pairs to reestablish dc operating levels.

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 4.2.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Figure 4.2 LM741/107 packages (a) 8-pin and 14-pin DIP showing connections and (b) Op-amp symbol.
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4.2.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Offset control for the LM 741/107 op-amp.

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4.2.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

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 4.2.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
• When a voltage input signal is fed into the negative terminal of
the op-amp, the output signal will be inverted. The voltage gain
o approximates to:

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 4.2.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
• When the input signal is fed into the positive terminal the
circuit is noninverting, The voltage gain in this case
approximates to:

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 Example
If in Fig. 4.4a, resistor R1 = 1200 Ω and resistor R2 = 150 kΩ, what
is the gain, and what is the output voltage amplitude if the ac
input voltage is 3.5 mV?

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 4.2.3 CURRENT AMPLIFIERS
• Devices that amplify currents are referred to as current
amplifiers. However, in industrial instrumentation a voltage-to-
current converter is sometimes referred to as a current
amplifier.

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 4.2.3 CURRENT AMPLIFIERS

Figure 4.6a shows a basic current amplifier.

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 4.2.4 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

• A differential amplifier is a dual input amplifier that amplifies

the difference between two signals, such that the output is the
gain multiplied by the magnitude of the difference between
the two signals.
• One signal is fed to the negative input of the op-amp and the
other signal is fed to the positive input of the op-amp. Hence
the signals are subtracted before being amplified.

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 4.2.4 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

• The output voltage is given by

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 4.2.5 BUFFER AMPLIFIERS

• An impedance matching op-amp is called a buffer amplifier.

Such amplifiers have feedback to give unity voltage gain, high
input impedance (many megaohms), and low output
impedance (<20 Ω).

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 4.2.5 BUFFER AMPLIFIERS

• A buffer amplifier can be used

to match the input impedance
of the second circuit to the first
circuit, thus giving an output
voltage 8 V across the 2 kΩ
load.

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 4.2.6 NONLINEAR AMPLIFIERS
• These are achieved by the use of nonlinear elements such as
diodes or transistors in the feedback loop.

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 4.2.7 INSTRUMENT AMPLIFIERS
• Because of the very high accuracy requirement in
instrumentation, the op-amp circuits shown in this Figure are
not ideally suited for low-level instrument signal amplification.

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4.2.7 INSTRUMENT AMPLIFIERS

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4.2.7 INSTRUMENT AMPLIFIERS

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 4.2.8 AMPLIFIER APPLICATION
In process control, amplifiers are used in many applications other
than signal amplification, filtering, and linearization. Some of
these applications are as
• Capacitance multiplier
• Gyrator
• Sine wave oscillators
• Power supply regulators
• Level detection

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 4.2.8 AMPLIFIER APPLICATION

• Sample and hold

• Voltage reference
• Current mirrors
• Voltage-to-frequency converters
• Voltage-to-digital converters
• Pulse amplitude modulation

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 CHAPTER 4.3

DIGITAL CIRCUITS

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 4.3 DIGITAL CIRCUITS

• The study of electronic circuits where the inputs and outputs

are limited to two fixed or discrete values or logic levels is
called digital electronics.

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 4.3 DIGITAL CIRCUITS
Some of the advantages of digital circuits are :
• Lower power requirements.
• More cost effective.
• Can transmit signals over long distances without loss of
accuracy and elimination of noise.
• High-speed signal transmission
• Memory capability for data storage
• Controller and alpha numeric display compatible

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 4.3.1 DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Digital signals are either high or low logic levels. Most digital
circuits use a 5-V supply.
• The logic low (binary 0) level is from 0 to 1V, the logic high
(binary1) level is from 2 to 5V; 1 to 2 V is an undefined region,
i.e., any voltage below 1 V is considered a 0 level and any
voltage above 2 V is considered a 1 level.

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 4.3.1 DIGITAL SIGNALS

• In circuits where the supply voltage is other than 5 V, a 0 level

is still considered as a 0 V level or the output drivers are sinking
current, i.e., connecting the output terminal to ground, and a 1
level is close to the supply voltage or the output drivers are
sourcing current, i.e., connecting the output terminal to the
supply rail.

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 4.3.2 BINARY NUMBERS

We use the decimal system (base 10) for mathematical functions,

whereas electronics uses the binary system (base 2) to perform
the same functions.

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4.3.2 BINARY NUMBERS

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4.3.2 BINARY NUMBERS

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 4.3.2 BINARY NUMBERS

• Each binary digit is called a bit, 4 bits are defined as a nibble, 8

bits form a byte, and 2 bytes or 16 bits are called a word.
• A word is often broken down into 4 nibbles, where each nibble
is represented by a decade number plus letters as shown in
Table 4.3.
• Thus, a word can be represented by 4 decade numbers plus the
first six letters of the alphabet. This system is known as the
hexadecimal system.
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4.3.2 BINARY NUMBERS

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4.3.2 BINARY NUMBERS

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 4.3.3 LOGIC CIRCUITS

• The basic building blocks in digital circuits are called gates.

These are buffer, inverter, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR, and
XNOR.
• These basic blocks are interconnected to build functional
blocks such as encoders, decoders, adders, counters, registers,
multiplexers, demultiplexers, memories, and the like.

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 4.3.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
Several techniques are used for the conversion of analog
signals–to digital signals. These are:

• Flash converters which are very fast and expensive with limited
accuracy, that is, 6-bit output with a conversion time of 33 ns.
The device can sample an analog voltage 30 million times per
second.

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 4.3.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

• Successive approximation is a high-speed, medium-cost

technique with good accuracy, that is, the most expensive
device can convert an analog voltage to 12 bits in 20 μs, and a
less expensive device can convert an analog signal to 8 bits in
30 μs.
• Resistor ladder networks are used in low-speed, medium-cost
converters. They have a 12-bit conversion time of about 5 ms.

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 4.3.4 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

• Dual slope converters are low-cost, low-speed devices but have

good accuracy and are very tolerant of high noise levels in the
analog signal. A 12-bit conversion takes about 20 ms.

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 CHAPTER 4.4

CIRCUIT CONSIDERATIONS

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 4.4 CIRCUIT CONSIDERATIONS

• Analog circuits can use either bipolar or MOS-integrated

amplifiers. Bipolar op-amps tend to have a lower input dc
offset, but MOS op-amps have higher input impedance. Since a
large number of op-amps and special amplifiers are available,
the manufacturers’ data sheets should be consulted to decide
which amplifier is best suited for a specific application.

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 4.4 CIRCUIT CONSIDERATIONS

• In small-scale integration (up to 100 devices) such as the SN

54/74 family of digital circuits, both bipolar and CMOS devices
are used. This family of devices contains gates and small
building blocks.
• Medium scale integration (over 100,000 devices) will use only
CMOS devices. This is because of the excessive power
requirements, high dissipation, and relatively large size of
bipolar devices.
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 4.4 CIRCUIT CONSIDERATIONS

• Large-scale integrated circuits contain over 1,000,000 devices,

and use CMOS technology. These devices are used for large
memories, microprocessors, and microcontrollers, and such
circuits can contain several million devices.

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 SUMMARY
The points discussed in this chapter are:
• 1. Discrete amplifiers, their use in ac signal amplification, and
why they are not suitable for dc signal amplification.
• 2. The op-amp and its basic characteristics, its versatility and
use in signal amplification, and methods of setting the zero
operating point.
• 3. Signal inversion and noninversion, methods of applying
feedback for gain control and stability.

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 SUMMARY

• 4. Use of the op-amp as a signal converter, impedance

matching, set zero control, and span adjustment.
• 5. Configuration of op-amps to make an instrument amplifier
for accurate signal amplification and noise reduction.
• 6. Introduction to digital circuits plus a comparison between
analog and digital circuits.

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END OF SLIDE

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 CREDITS
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