Learning Objectives

• Differentiate between digestion, absorption and metabolism.

• Describe the digestive tract structures.
• Explain digestion, including the actions and secretions of different
digestive tract structures.
• Outline absorption, including the different absorptive mechanisms.
• Outline factors that can affect the health of the digestive tract,
including the microbiome.
• Explain cellular respiration, which turns food energy into cellular
energy.
Digestion
Digestion Overview
• Digestion separates the nutrients in food and breaks larger molecules
into smaller ones so they can be absorbed
• Polysaccharides → sugars
• Triglycerides → fatty acids
• Proteins → amino acids
• Two types of digestion:
• Mechanical/physical: uses physical process such as chewing to break food apart
• Chemical digestion: uses enzymes to alter the chemical structure of nutrients
Enzymes
• Enzymes speed up the rate of reaction
• Provide a location for chemical reactions to occur
• Enzymes can participate in hydrolysis and condensation reactions
• Hydrolysis reaction: the input of water helps to break down the molecule:
Condensation reactions
 Hormones
• Hormones are chemical
messengers that are required
for many physiological
processes, including digestion
• They are released form one
area of the body and travel
through the blood to different
parts of the body
The Digestive System
The Digestive Tract
• Long, tube-like structure
• Sphincters often separate
different parts of the tube
• Takes ~ 2+ days for material to
pass through the entire tract
• Food spends most time in the
large intestine
Layers of the Digestive Tract Wall
The Mouth
• Teeth rip food apart
• Tongue pushes food towards teeth and mixes it with saliva
• Salivary glands secrete saliva into mouth, which contains:
• Salivary amylase digests amylose (starch)
• Lingual lipase digests lipids
• Mucus lubricates food
• Lysozyme = antibacterial substance that disinfects food
• When food leaves the mouth it is a bolus
The Pharynx
• Aka throat
• Common passageway for food and
inspired air
• No active digestion or absorption
• The epiglottis directs food from
the pharynx into the esophagus
instead of down the wrong tube
into the trachea (windpipe)
How to Dislodge an Object that Enters the
Airways and Causes Choking
 The Esophagus

• No active digestion or
absorption
• Peristalsis is a type of
movement that occurs
here and in other
parts of the tract
The Stomach
• Temporary reservoir for food
• Food remains here 4-5 hours
• Three layers of muscles allow
stomach to churn
• Lower esophageal sphincter and
pyloric sphincter close as
stomach churns food and mixes it
with gastric juice
• When food leaves the stomach it
is in a semi-liquid form = chyme
Gastric Juice
• Cells in the stomach crypts secrete
contents of gastric juice:
• Mucus
• Lubrication, medium for chemical reactions
• Gastric lipase
• Breaks down lipids
• Hydrochloric acid
• Unravels proteins, activates pepsinogen
• Pepsinogen
• Becomes pepsin, which digests protein
The Small Intestine
• Primary site of digestion and
absorption
• Three sections: duodenum,
jejunum, ileum
• Long length (~6m), large
circular folds, villi, microvilli
contribute to its large
surface area
• Its total surface area is about
the size of a tennis court!
 Villi of the Small Intestine
• The villus (plural = villi) is the main
functional unit of the small intestine
• Villi are invaginations of the small
intestine wall
• The cells on their surface have extensions
called microvilli (collectively known as the
brush border) which secrete enzymes
• Nutrient subunits are absorbed into the
center of the villus where they then enter
the blood or the lymph
Nutrients Use Different Absorption
Mechanisms to Enter the Blood / Lymph
Accessory Structures of the Digestive Tract

• The liver, gallbladder and

pancreas secrete
material into the
duodenum of the small
intestine
 The Pancreas

• The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the small intestine

• =its exocrine function
• Pancreatic juice contains:
• Digestive enzymes
• Amylase, lipase, proteases
• Bicarbonate
• Neutralizes chyme
The Liver,
Gallbladder and
Bile
• The liver makes bile; the
gallbladder stores it.
• Bile is a lipid emulsifier – it
breaks larger lipid globules
into smaller ones and
allows them to be
suspended in a watery
environment
 The Large Intestine
• Approx 1.5 m in length
• The colon is the main part
of the large intestine
• Here, any unabsorbed
material is either:
• Packaged for removal
• Acted upon by bacteria
• = Microbiota
The Microbiome
• The largest population of non-human cells is
found in the large intestine
• Microbiota = all the non-human organisms
found in our body
• Mostly bacteria
• 300-500 different species
• Microbiome = the genetic material of the
non-human organisms found in our body
• The microbiota have roles in:
• Vitamin synthesis (vitamin K, B2, B12)
• Energy harvesting
• Health/disease
• Appetite
Digestive
Tract
Summary
The Digestive Tract in
Health and Disease
 Probiotics and Prebiotics
• Probiotics = cultures of living
organisms (ex. Bacteria)
• Found in yogurt, kombucha
• Cannot treat or cure any disease, but
may help in the management of
certain conditions

• Prebiotics = carbohydrates that act

as food for the microbiota
• Found in asparagus, garlic, banana…
• Support the health of the
microbiome
Ulcers
• = weakened, damaged parts of
the lining of the digestive tract
• Ex. Canker sores
• occur in mouth; resolve on own
• Ex. Peptic Ulcers
• Occur in esophagus, stomach,
small intestine
• Typically related to infection with
H. pylori bacteria
 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
• Gastroesophageal reflux = when
lower esophageal sphincter
weakens; acidic stomach
contents spill into esophagus
• Aka “heart burn”

• Can lead to gastroesophageal

reflux disease (GERD)
• Can then lead to ulcers, Barrett’s
esophagus
Irritable Bowel Syndrome(IBS)
• Cause unknown
• Symptoms of IBS include abdominal pain, bloating, cramping, diarrhea,
constipation, flatulence
• Treatment focuses on alleviating symptoms:
• Avoiding trigger foods, managing stress, drinking plenty of fluids…
Diverticulitis
• Diverticula = weakened walls of
the large intestine form
outpouchings
• Diverticula can become
inflamed = diverticulitis
• Diverticula can blead =
diverticulosis
• Age, obesity, smoking, physical
inactivity increase risk
• Diets low in fibre and high in
animal fat increase risk
 Gallstones
• Hardened bile deposits that form
stones in the gallbladder
• Can be painful, especially when fat is
consumed and gallbladder contracts
to release bile
• Diets high in simple sugars, saturated
fat and energy increase risk
• Gallbladder may need to be removed
Digestive Tract Cancers
• Cancer = uncontrolled multiplication of our cells
• Can occur anywhere in digestive tract; most common in colon
• Colorectal cancer has both genetic and lifestyle risk factors
• Physical inactivity, obesity increase risk
• Diets high in red and processed meats increase risk, those high in
vegetables, fruits and fibre decrease risk
Constipation
• = bowel movements that are difficult to pass or less frequent
• Stools tend to be dry, hard and can be painful to excrete
• Increases risk for hemorrhoids
• Risk factors include age, female sex, genetics, physical inactivity, the
use of certain medications and IBS
• Diet low in fruits, vegetables and water also increases risk
Diarrhea
• Occurs when matter passes too quickly through the large intestine
• Stools are loose and have a liquid-like consistency
• Typically due to bacterial and viral infections.
• Can be caused by food poisoning
Delivering Absorbed
Nutrients
Delivery of Nutrients to the Liver
• Nutrients that enter the blood
capillaries at the villi will then
enter veins that lead to the liver
• = All nutrients except large lipids
and fat-soluble vitamins
• At the liver, material is stored,
used, detoxified or sent off to the
rest of the system
• The material that enters the
cardiovascular system can then be
transported to where it is needed
Dietary Toxins and Detoxification
• Recall that toxins are substances that can be found in food that can
cause damage to the body.
• Ex. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
• Levels of toxins in a well-balanced diet are typically below the
threshold for harm
• Also, the liver, kidneys and lungs remove toxins form the body
• Lack of evidence to support the use of commercial detox diets for
detoxification/ improved health
Energy Metabolism
 Metabolism
• Metabolism = sum of chemical reactions that occur in our bodies
• Anabolism
• smaller molecules come together to form larger ones
• requires an input of energy
• Catabolism
• Larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones
• Leads to a net release of energy
• The catabolism of the energy-yielding nutrients (carbs, fats, proteins)
leads to the release of energy
• This energy is captured within ATP: the energy currency of the body
Capturing and Releasing Energy via ATP
Cellular Respiration
• Cellular respiration = the catabolism of the energy-yielding nutrients
leading to the production of ATP
• Primarily occurs in the mitochondria (“powerhouse”) of the cell
• It occurs in several steps, collectively known as a metabolic pathway
• The cellular respiration of glucose is summarized by the equation:

• Once this is understood, the metabolism of triglycerides and amino

acids can be understood
Summary of
Glucose Metabolism
 Glucose Metabolism

Step 1: Glycolysis
• Glycolysis = breakdown of
glucose
• Anaerobic; produces
minimal ATP
Glucose Metabolism
Step 2: The Breakdown of Pyruvate
• Pyruvate catabolism depends on
whether oxygen is present (aerobic
conditions) or not (anaerobic conditions)
• Aerobic conditions – acetyl CoA is formed
• Anerobic conditions- pyruvate is formed
• Some ATP is formed
• Cannot be sustained
• Reversible back to pyruvate when oxygen is
again available
 Glucose Metabolism
Step 3: Citric Acid Cycle
• Citric Acid Cycle= complex set of
reactions that begins when acetyl
CoA combines with oxaloacetate
• Produces CO2 , water, and the capture
of energy in GTP (≈ATP)
• Most notably, electron transporters
(NADH + H+, FADH2) capture electrons
and move to the mitochondrial
membrane to begin the electron
transport chain
 Glucose Metabolism
Step 4: The Electron Transport Chain
• Electrons are exchanged between the
electron transporters (NADH + H+,
FADH2) and membrane-bound proteins
• This leads to a build up of protons (H+)
on one side of the membrane
• These protons will move through a
protein pump that is associated with an
enzyme called ATP synthase.
• This process leads to the production of
more than 30 molecules of ATP.
Lipid Metabolism
• Triglycerides have three fatty
acids attached to a glycerol
backbone
• Majority of energy is derived
from fatty acids
• Beta-oxidation splits the
fatty acid two carbon atoms
at a time
• Each two-carbon molecule of
a fatty acid can be used to
form acetyl CoA
• Proceeds through remaining
stages of cellular respiration
Ketogenesis
• Can occur when diet is high in fat
and very low in carbohydrates
• The citric acid cycle requires
carbohydrates
• On a very low carb diet, fatty acids
cannot enter citric acid cycle,
instead form ketones
 Amino Acid Metabolism
• First, the nitrogen group of the
amino acid must be removed
(deaminated)
• There are 21 amino acids – each
with a unique side chain
• Therefore there are 21 possibilities
for what remains
• Deaminated amino acids will either
be used to form:
• Pyruvate
• Acetyl CoA
• Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates
 Non-Energy Uses of Sugars, Lipids and Amino Acids

• When we consume more

energy than we need, most
of the excess is stored as
lipid in our fat tissue