minerals and

rocks
 MINER
ALS
A mineral is a naturally occurring, solid Earth material
that has formed by geologic processes.

For now, think of minerals as the building blocks of rocks

that form the solid framework of Earth's crust.
 Mineral Chemistry:
Compounds
A mineral is formallydefined as an element or chemical compound that must

1. Be naturally formed. This requirement excludes human-made substances such

as human-made diamonds.

2.Normally be a solid. This requirement excludes most fluids and all gases.

3.Have a characteristic chemical formula.

4. Have a characteristic crystalline structure, in most cases. Although some

geologists require that the substance have a crystalline structure, the definition of
a mineral was revised in the mid-1990s to include some noncrystalline solids and
even some liquids such as mercury.
 Mineral Chemistry:
Compounds
Minerals can be either elements or compounds.

A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements that can be

represented by a chemical formula, such as PbS, or lead sulfide

Naturally occurring PbS is the mineral galena that we mine to obtain lead. Thus,
minerals may be composed of either a single element, such as the mineral
diamond, which is composed of carbon (C), or several elements in a compound
such as the mineral galena, lead sulfide (PbS).
 Minerals and Chemical
The atomsBonding
that constitute a mineral are held together by chemical bonding.
Bonding results from attractive forces between atoms,sharing of electrons, or
both.

Types of bonds determine some of the primary physical properties of

minerals; they explain in part, for example, why diamonds and graphite have
the same chemical formula of pure carbon (C) but are so different.

There are four main types of chemical bonds in minerals: covalent, ionic, Van
der Waals, and metallic.
For example, diamonds, one of the hardest substances on Earth, are
composed of covalently bonded carbon atoms. Gem-quality diamonds are
clear, hard crystals that jewelers may cut to form beautiful gemstones of high
value.

Diamond (a) Diamond crystal. (b) Idealized diagram of internal structure of

diamond, with balls representing carbon atoms joined by rods representing
strong covalent bonds.
Covalent bonds are stronger than ionic
bonds, which form because of an
attraction between negatively and
positively charged ions. An example of
an ionic bond is the attraction of Na and
Cl ions, forming sodium chloride, the
mineral halite.

Compounds with ionic bonds are much

more solubleand easily dissolved in
water than are those with co- valent
bonds.
Van der Waals bonds involve a weak
attraction between chains or sheets of ions
that themselves are likely to be bonded by
stronger covalent and ionic bonds.

Graphite is black and consists of soft

sheets of carbon atoms that easily part, or
break from one another. Graphite is the
"lead" used in pencils. It is also a good dry
lubricant, sprayed as a dust into door locks
to help the parts of the lock move freely.
Metallic bonds form between metal
atoms. Gold contains metallic bonds.
Gold's properties, such as its ability to
conduct an electrical current, and
malleability, the ability to form paper-
thin sheets, are both due to metallic
bonds.

The electrons can flow, making gold

both an excellent conductor of
electricity and easy to pound into a
thin sheet. As a result, gold is in high
demand for electronic processing.
 Crystalline Structure of
Minerals
Now that we know that chemical bonds hold the atoms of minerals
together, let's consider the term crystalline.

• Crystalline refers to the orderly regular repeating geometric

patterns of atoms found in most minerals. The smallest unit of
this geometric pattern in a crystal is called the unit cell.

• A crystal is composed of stacking unit cells. The internal

structure for a given mineral typically contains a particular
symmetry that determines the external form of the crystal.
 Shapes of crystals Some
common shapes of crystals for
selected minerals
 ImportantRock-Forming Minerals
Although there are more than 4,000 minerals, only a few dozen are common constituents of Earth
materials on or near Earth's surface. These few minerals are often important to many environmental
concerns and are necessary in identifying most Earth materials we know as rocks, which are
aggregates of one or more minerals.
Someꢀcommonꢀminerals

(a)ꢀ Clusterꢀ ofꢀ quartzꢀ crystalsꢀ fromꢀ Brazil.ꢀ Someꢀ areꢀ colorlessꢀ andꢀ someꢀ areꢀ roseꢀ colored.ꢀ Quartzꢀ isꢀ
aꢀ veryꢀ hard,ꢀ
commonꢀrock-formingꢀmineral.ꢀ
(b)ꢀOneꢀofꢀtheꢀseveralꢀvarietiesꢀofꢀfeldspar,ꢀtheꢀmostꢀcommonꢀrock-
formingꢀmineralꢀinꢀEarth'sꢀcrust.ꢀ
c)ꢀYellowꢀandꢀpinkꢀclayꢀmineralsꢀonꢀtheꢀwallꢀofꢀFaintꢀMines,ꢀColorado.ꢀTheseꢀareꢀonlyꢀtwoꢀexamplesꢀofꢀth
eꢀmanyꢀclayꢀ
mineralsꢀ that,ꢀ whenꢀ presentꢀ inꢀ soils,ꢀ mayꢀ exhibitꢀ undesirableꢀ propertiesꢀ suchꢀ asꢀ lowꢀ strength,ꢀ highꢀ
waterꢀ content,ꢀ
poorꢀdrainage,ꢀandꢀhighꢀshrink-swellꢀpotential.
(d)ꢀ Theꢀ darkꢀ mineralꢀ inꢀ thisꢀ handꢀ specimenꢀ ofꢀ aꢀ rockꢀ isꢀ theꢀ blackꢀ micaꢀ calledꢀ biotite.ꢀ Itꢀ isꢀ aꢀ
commonꢀ mineralꢀ inꢀ
graniticꢀrocksꢀasꢀwellꢀasꢀsomeꢀmetamorphicꢀrocks.
(e)ꢀCalcite,ꢀtheꢀabundantꢀmineralꢀinꢀlimestoneꢀandꢀmarble.ꢀLimestoneꢀterrainꢀisꢀassociatedꢀwithꢀcaverns,ꢀsinkhol
es,ꢀ
subsidence,ꢀandꢀpotentialꢀwaterꢀpollutionꢀandꢀconstructionꢀproblems.
(f)ꢀPyriteꢀ(fool'sꢀgold)ꢀisꢀironꢀsulfide,ꢀaꢀcommonꢀmineralꢀassociatedꢀwithꢀoreꢀdepositsꢀandꢀcoalꢀthatꢀreactsꢀwi
thꢀwaterꢀ
andꢀoxygenꢀtoꢀformꢀsulfuricꢀacid.ꢀ
(g)ꢀFragmentꢀofꢀnativeꢀcoppe
r
Other Important Rock-Forming
Minerals Earthꢀ materialsꢀ containingꢀ usefulꢀ minerals,ꢀ

Oxide especiallyꢀ metals,ꢀ thatꢀ canꢀ beꢀ extractedꢀ atꢀ aꢀ

profitꢀ

s areꢀcalledꢀores.
Theꢀ mostꢀ importantꢀ ironꢀ oreꢀ isꢀ hematiteꢀ (anꢀ
ironꢀ
oxide,ꢀFe2C>3)ꢀandꢀtheꢀmostꢀimportantꢀaluminumꢀo
reꢀ
isꢀbauxiteꢀ(aꢀmixtureꢀofꢀseveralꢀaluminumꢀoxides).
Magnetiteꢀ (Fe304ꢀ ,ꢀ alsoꢀ anꢀ ironꢀ oxide,ꢀ
ꢀ
butꢀ
economicallyꢀ lessꢀ importantꢀ thanꢀ hematite)ꢀ
isꢀ
commonꢀ inꢀ manyꢀ rocks.ꢀ Magnetite,ꢀ alsoꢀ knownꢀ
asꢀ
Other Important Rock-Forming
Minerals Earthꢀ materialsꢀ containingꢀ usefulꢀ minerals,ꢀ

Oxide especiallyꢀ metals,ꢀ thatꢀ canꢀ beꢀ extractedꢀ atꢀ aꢀ

profitꢀ

s areꢀcalledꢀores.
Theꢀ mostꢀ importantꢀ ironꢀ oreꢀ isꢀ hematiteꢀ (anꢀ
ironꢀ
oxide,ꢀFe2C>3)ꢀandꢀtheꢀmostꢀimportantꢀaluminumꢀo
reꢀ
isꢀbauxiteꢀ(aꢀmixtureꢀofꢀseveralꢀaluminumꢀoxides).
Magnetiteꢀ (Fe304ꢀ ,ꢀ alsoꢀ anꢀ ironꢀ oxide,ꢀ
ꢀ
butꢀ
economicallyꢀ lessꢀ importantꢀ thanꢀ hematite)ꢀ
isꢀ
commonꢀ inꢀ manyꢀ rocks.ꢀ Magnetite,ꢀ alsoꢀ knownꢀ
asꢀ
Other Important Rock-Forming
Minerals
Carbonate
Minerals Environmentally,ꢀ theꢀ mostꢀ importantꢀ carbonateꢀ
mineralꢀisꢀcalciteꢀ(calciumꢀcarbonate,ꢀCaCC>3)

Thisꢀ mineralꢀ isꢀ theꢀ majorꢀ constituentꢀ ofꢀ

limestoneꢀ
andꢀmarble,ꢀtwoꢀveryꢀimportantꢀrockꢀtypes.ꢀ
Manyꢀ marineꢀ organismsꢀ fromꢀ oystersꢀ andꢀ clamsꢀ
toꢀ
formaniferaꢀ (discussedꢀ earlierꢀ withꢀ oxygenꢀ
isotopes)ꢀ
haveꢀshellsꢀcomposedꢀofꢀcarbonateꢀminerals.
Other Important Rock-Forming
Minerals Pyriteꢀ (ironꢀ sulfide,ꢀ FeSꢀ 2ꢀ ),ꢀ alsoꢀ knownꢀ
asꢀ fool'sꢀ
gold,ꢀisꢀaꢀsulfideꢀmineral
Sulfidesꢀcanꢀalsoꢀbeꢀassociatedꢀwithꢀenvironmental
ꢀ
Sulfide degradation,ꢀ whichꢀ typicallyꢀ occursꢀ whenꢀ
roads,ꢀ
Mineral runnels,ꢀ orꢀ minesꢀ cutꢀ throughꢀ coal-bearingꢀ
rocksꢀ
Theꢀ exposedsulfidesꢀ oxidize,ꢀ orꢀ combinewithꢀ
s thatꢀcontainꢀsulfideꢀminerals.ꢀ
oxygen,ꢀ inꢀ theꢀ presenceofꢀ waterꢀ toꢀ
formꢀ
compoundsꢀ suchꢀ asꢀ sulfuricꢀ acidꢀ thatꢀ mayꢀ
enterꢀ
Other Important Rock-Forming
Minerals
Mineralsꢀ formedꢀ ofꢀ aꢀ singleꢀ elementꢀ areꢀ
calledꢀ

Native nativeꢀ elements;ꢀ gold,ꢀ silver,ꢀ copperꢀ ,ꢀ

andꢀ

Element diamondsꢀ areꢀ examplesꢀ ofꢀ nativeꢀ elements.ꢀ

Theyꢀ
Asꢀ weꢀ mineꢀ theseꢀ mineralsꢀ inꢀ everꢀ lower-

s haveꢀlongꢀbeenꢀsoughtꢀasꢀvaluableꢀminerals.
gradeꢀ
deposits,ꢀ theꢀ environmentalꢀ impactꢀ willꢀ increaseꢀ
becauseꢀ theꢀ largerꢀ theꢀ mineꢀ theꢀ greaterꢀ
theꢀ
environmentalꢀimpact
 Rock
Cycle
Aꢀrockꢀisꢀanꢀaggregateꢀofꢀoneꢀorꢀmoreꢀminerals.ꢀThatꢀis,ꢀsomeꢀrocksꢀa
reꢀformedꢀ
fromꢀaꢀsingleꢀmineral,ꢀandꢀothersꢀareꢀcomposedꢀofꢀseveralꢀminerals.ꢀ
Althoughꢀ rocksꢀ varyꢀ greatlyꢀ inꢀ theirꢀ compositionꢀ andꢀ properties,ꢀ theyꢀ
canꢀ beꢀ
classifiedꢀintoꢀthreeꢀgeneralꢀtypes,ꢀorꢀfamilies,ꢀaccordingꢀtoꢀ
theirꢀmineralogy—orꢀmineralꢀcomposition,ꢀ
chemicalꢀcomposition,ꢀandꢀ
textureꢀ (size,ꢀ shape,ꢀ andꢀ arrangementꢀ ofꢀ grains)ꢀ andꢀ howꢀ theyꢀ wereꢀ
formedꢀ
duringꢀtheꢀrockꢀcycle.
 Rock Cycle and Plate
Tectonics
Plateꢀ tectonicsꢀ providesꢀ severalꢀ environmentsꢀ forꢀ rockꢀ
formation,ꢀ
withꢀspecificꢀrock-
formingꢀprocessesꢀoccurringꢀatꢀeachꢀtypeꢀofꢀplateꢀ
boundary.
Whenꢀ weꢀ considerꢀ theꢀ rockꢀ cycleꢀ alone,ꢀ weꢀ areꢀ concernedꢀ
mainlyꢀ
withꢀtheꢀrecyclingꢀofꢀrockꢀandꢀmineralꢀmaterials.ꢀ
 Rock Cycle and Plate
Tectonics
Three Rock Laws
Understandingꢀ Earthꢀ historyꢀ throughꢀ geologicꢀ timeꢀ requiresꢀ knowingꢀ
someꢀ
fun-ꢀdamentalꢀlaws.ꢀThreeꢀofꢀtheꢀmostꢀimportantꢀare
1.Theꢀlawꢀ ofꢀ crosscuttingꢀ relationshipsꢀ statesꢀ thatꢀ aꢀ rockꢀ isꢀ youngerꢀ
thanꢀ anyꢀ
otherꢀrockꢀthatꢀitꢀcuts.
2.Theꢀ lawꢀ ofꢀ originalꢀ horizontalityꢀ statesꢀ thatꢀ whenꢀ originallyꢀ
deposited,ꢀ
sedimentaryꢀlayersꢀareꢀnearlyꢀhorizontal.
3.ꢀ Theꢀ lawꢀ ofꢀ superpositionꢀ statesꢀ thatꢀ ifꢀ aꢀ seriesꢀ ofꢀ layeredꢀ
sedimentsꢀ haveꢀ
notꢀ beenꢀ overturned,ꢀ theꢀ oldestꢀ layersꢀ areꢀ onꢀ theꢀ bottomꢀ andꢀ theꢀ
 Igneous Rocks
Igneousꢀ rocksꢀ haveꢀ crystallizedꢀ fromꢀ magma,ꢀ aꢀ mobileꢀ massꢀ ofꢀ
hot,ꢀ quasi-
liquidꢀEarthꢀmaterialꢀconsistingꢀofꢀaꢀmixtureꢀofꢀmeltedꢀandꢀsolidꢀmaterials
.ꢀ

Igneous rocks Types of extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks and their characteristic mineral
composition. Note that every extrusive rock has an intrusive counterpart. For example, rhyolite and
granite are composed of the same minerals, but rhyolite cooled at the surface of Earth
whereasgranite cooled beneath the surface of Earth.
 Igneous Rocks and the Environment
Intrusiveꢀ andꢀ extrusiveꢀ igneousꢀ rocksꢀ haveꢀ aꢀ wideꢀ varietyꢀ ofꢀ
properties,ꢀ andꢀ
generalizationsꢀ areꢀ difficult.ꢀ Weꢀ can,ꢀ however,ꢀ makeꢀ threeꢀ
environmentalꢀ
pointsꢀassociatedꢀwithꢀtheseꢀrocks:
(1)ꢀ Intrusiveꢀ igneousꢀ rocks,ꢀ especiallyꢀ granite,ꢀ areꢀ generallyꢀ strongꢀ
rocksꢀ thatꢀ
makeꢀ aꢀ goodꢀ foundationꢀ forꢀ manyꢀ structuresꢀ suchꢀ asꢀ damsꢀ andꢀ
largeꢀ
buildings.ꢀ Blocksꢀ ofꢀ theseꢀ rocksꢀ areꢀ oftenꢀ resistantꢀ toꢀ weatheringꢀ
andꢀ areꢀ flowsꢀ thatꢀ haveꢀ cooledꢀ andꢀ solidifiedꢀ oftenꢀ exhibitꢀ
(2)ꢀ Lavaꢀ
usedꢀforꢀaꢀvarietyꢀofꢀconstructionꢀpurposes
extensiveꢀ
columnarꢀjointing.ꢀColumnarꢀjointingꢀisꢀaꢀtypeꢀofꢀfracturingꢀthatꢀoccursꢀdu
ringꢀ
 Igneous Rocks and the
Environment
(3)ꢀ Tuffꢀ isꢀ
strength.ꢀ Theꢀ
generallyꢀ aꢀ soft,ꢀ weakꢀ rockꢀ thatꢀ mayꢀ haveꢀ veryꢀ lowꢀ

strengthꢀ ofꢀ aꢀ tuffꢀ rockꢀ dependsꢀ uponꢀ theꢀ degreeꢀ toꢀ whichꢀ itꢀ hasꢀ
becomeꢀ
cementedꢀ orꢀ welded.ꢀ Someꢀ tuffꢀ mayꢀ beꢀ alteredꢀ throughꢀ weatheringꢀ
intoꢀ aꢀ
typeꢀ ofꢀ clayꢀ knownꢀ asꢀ bentonite,ꢀ anꢀ extremelyꢀ unstableꢀ material.ꢀ
Whenꢀ
bentoniteꢀisꢀwet,ꢀitꢀexpandsꢀtoꢀmanyꢀtimesꢀitsꢀoriginalꢀvolumeꢀandꢀisꢀun
stable.
 Sedimentary Rocks and the
Environment
Threeꢀ primaryꢀ
areꢀasꢀfollows:
environmentalꢀ concernsꢀ associatedꢀ withꢀ sedimentaryꢀ rocksꢀ

• ꢀShale,ꢀmudstone,ꢀandꢀsiltstoneꢀareꢀoftenꢀveryꢀweakꢀrocks.ꢀ
• ꢀLimestoneꢀisꢀnotꢀalwaysꢀwellꢀsuitedꢀforꢀhumanꢀuseꢀandꢀactivity.ꢀ
• ꢀCementingꢀ materialsꢀ inꢀ detritalꢀ sedimentaryꢀ rocksꢀ mayꢀ beꢀ
troublesome.ꢀ
Silicaꢀ cementꢀ isꢀ theꢀ strongest;ꢀ calciumꢀ carbonateꢀ tendsꢀ toꢀ dissolveꢀ
inꢀ
weakꢀacid;ꢀandꢀclayꢀmayꢀbeꢀunstableꢀandꢀwashꢀaway.ꢀ
 Metamorphic
percentꢀ
Rocks
Igneousꢀ andꢀ metamorphicꢀ rocksꢀ togetherꢀ accountꢀ forꢀ moreꢀ thanꢀ 90ꢀ

ofꢀallꢀrocksꢀinꢀEarth'sꢀcrust.ꢀ
Metamorphicꢀrocksꢀareꢀchangedꢀrocks;ꢀthatꢀis,ꢀheat,ꢀpressure,ꢀandꢀchemicall
yꢀ
activeꢀfluidsꢀproducedꢀbyꢀtheꢀtectonicꢀcycleꢀorꢀresultingꢀfromꢀtheꢀpresence
ꢀofꢀ
anꢀ intrusionꢀ mayꢀ changeꢀ theꢀ mineralogyꢀ andꢀ textureꢀ ofꢀ preexistingꢀ
rocks,ꢀ inꢀ
effectꢀproducingꢀnewꢀrocks.
 Metamorphic Rocks and the
ꢀThereꢀEnvironment
areꢀ severalꢀ pointsꢀ toꢀ beꢀ madeꢀ concerningꢀ metamorphicꢀ rocksꢀ
andꢀ theꢀ
environment.
• Slateꢀ isꢀ generallyꢀ anꢀ excellentꢀ foundationꢀ material.ꢀ Itꢀ hasꢀ alsoꢀ
beenꢀ usedꢀ
forꢀ constructingꢀ chalkboards,ꢀ bedsꢀ forꢀ poolꢀ tables,ꢀ roofingꢀ material,ꢀ
andꢀ
• decorativeꢀstoneꢀcounters.
Foliationꢀ planesꢀ ofꢀ metamorphicꢀ rocksꢀ areꢀ potentialꢀ planesꢀ ofꢀ
weakness.ꢀ
Theꢀstrengthꢀofꢀtheꢀrock,ꢀitsꢀpotentialꢀtoꢀslide,ꢀandꢀtheꢀmovementꢀof
ꢀwaterꢀ
throughꢀtheꢀrockꢀallꢀvaryꢀwithꢀtheꢀorientationꢀofꢀtheꢀfoliation.ꢀConsider
,ꢀforꢀ
 CASE HISTORY: T h e Asbestos
Controversy
For many people, the word asbestos is a red flag that signals a hazard to human health
because asbestos may cause fatal lung disease. In response to the perceived hazard,
people in the United States have spent large sums of money to remove asbestos from old
buildings, such as schools and other public buildings, where it was used in ceiling and floor
tiles and for insulation (Figure 3.1). The asbestos controversy is concerned with when and
where asbestos should be removed, but first let us define asbestos and discuss the hazards
itAsbestos
causes. is broadly defined as small, elongated mineral fibers that are present in certain
silicate minerals and rocks. Silicate minerals and rocks are those that contain silicon (Si) and
oxygen (O) in their chemical composition. Asbestos has proved to be a useful material,
particularly for its fire-retardant proper- ties. It is also used in brake linings and in a variety of
insulations. However, human exposure to asbestos has caused lung disease, including
cancer. Realization of the health hazarded to efforts to reduce and remove asbestos or to
ban it outright.
 The mineral quartz, which is not asbestosbut may be pres- ent in crushed rock as small
mineral fragments or grains, is also considereda probable carcinogenic material to humans.
As a result, any natural material in the United States containing one-tenth of 1 percent of free
silica, including quartz, must display hazardous warning signs. Theoretically, trucks that
transport crushed rocks need to carry warning signs; a truck driver transporting crushed
stones in Delaware was issued a citation for not displaying such signs on his truck! A local
Delaware paper reported facetiously that beaches composed of silica sand might also
present a public health hazard, so warn- ingsshould be posted on the beaches. The author
of the article went on to state that much misunderstanding has resulted from well-meaning
effortsto extrapolate data from environmental toxicity studieswithout understanding
commonnatural char- acteristics of minerals.1,2 The author's point was that, although sand is
composed of quartz,it is in the form of hard,rounded particles, not potentially hazardous
fibrous dust.
 The different types of asbestosare not equallyhazardous. In fact, exposure to "white
asbestos," or chrysotile, the variety most commonly used in the United States, is evidently
not very harmful.On the other hand, "blue asbestos," the mineral crocidolite, is known to
cause lung disease.

A good deal of fear is associated with nonoccupational exposure to asbestos, particularly

exposure of children. Identifying potentially hazardous blue asbestos in schools, public
buildings, and homes and then removing or covering it to avoid human exposure is an
important goal. Funds spent to re- move hazardous blue asbestos constitute a good
investment in environmental health. Large amounts of money have been spent to remove
white asbestos, which is not very hazardous and may not always require removal. Deciding
whether to remove asbestos requires the careful study of fibrous minerals and rocks in the
context in which they are used; only then can we understand their potential toxicity to people
and other living things. In the larger context, the asbestos controversy emphasizes the need
to know more about the minerals we use in modern society and how they are linked to the
environment.
 Critical Thinking
Consider the case historyQuestion
concerning the use of asbestos and the need to remove white
asbestos, which is not thought to cause environmental health problems. Sup- pose you are
the superintendent of schools in a large inner-city school system with many old buildings that
contain asbestos: pipes wrapped in asbestos, asbestos ceiling and floor tiles, and fire-
retardant asbestos used in the auditorium. What steps would you take to deter- mine if there
was a hazard, and how would you communicate with parents who are worried that their
children are being exposed to harmful materials? Outline a plan of action.