Properties of Materials

Science 8 - Chemistry
2.1. Atomic structure and the Periodic table
Lesson objectives:
1. Describe the structure of the atom.
2. Define atomic number and mass number of an atom
3. Describe the arrangement of element in the Periodic table
4. Describe the arrangement of the electrons within an atom
5. Evaluate the model of atom
 Classification of matter
● Chemistry is a study about matter. What is matter?
● Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space/has volume.
● Matter, based on the state, can be classified as follow:
 Properties of a solid, a liquid or a gas
● What is the meaning of “properties”?

● Properties are the characteristics of the substance or a matter that can be

observed.
 Properties of a solid, a liquid, and a gas
Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Does it flow?

Does it have fixed

volume?

Does it have fixed

shape?

Can it be
compressed?
 Properties of solid, liquid and gas
Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Can it flow?
Solid cannot flow Liquid can flow Gas can flow

Volume Fixed Fixed It is not fixed – if there is any

empty space the gas will fill the
empty space. So, the volume of
gas will follow the volume of the
container.

Shape
Fixed (it does not follow the
shape of container)
Can it be compressed?
It cannot be compressed
The shape is not fixed because it can It is not fixed – it follows the
follow the shape of container shape of the container
It cannot be compressed It can be compressed
 Explaining the properties of solid, liquid or gas
• The properties of solid, liquid, or gas are explained using
the model of particle theory
• The particle theory says that all matter is made of particles.

• Particles are the small parts of the substance that are the
building-blocks of the substance.

• We use a model to represent the particles in a solid, liquid, or a

gas.
Arrangement and behavior of particles in solid, liquid and
gas
Describe the structure of atom
• All matter is made of atoms.
• Atoms are too small too be seen with tangible eyes, that they
need to be magnified millions of times in order to be seen.
• Through experiments, the existence and the structure of atom
can be deduced.
• To help us understand atom easier, we use a model to
describe the structure of atom.
Describe the structure of atom
• What are inside an atom?

Atoms are made up of subatomic

particles:
• Protons
Proton
• Neutrons
Nucleu
• Electrons s
Neutron

Electron
Describe the structure of atom
• The center of the atom is called the nucleus. Protons and neutrons
are located in the nucleus.
• The electrons are moving around the nucleus at a certain distance
from the nucleus.
• The distance of the electron from the nucleus refers of the level of
energy of the electron.
• The layers of electrons around the nucleus are called electron
shells. Accordingly, the electron shells also show the energy levels
of the electrons.
• Energy levels are the layers or shells of electrons around the
nucleus of an atom as referred to as being at different levels of
energy.
Describe the structure of atom

electron shells
Describe the structure of atom
• A proton has an electrical charge of 1+.
• An electron has an electrical charge of 1-
• A neutron is electrically neutral (electrical charge = 0)
• Atom is electrically neutral (no overall charge) because the
total numbers of protons equals to the total numbers of
electrons.
The atom of element and the Periodic table
• The Periodic table gives the list of element by showing the key
information regarding the atom of each element.
• The important information:
– Atomic number: the numbers of proton. Atom of an element has a
certain numbers of proton. Numbers of proton in the nucleus gives
the identity of the atom. For example: atom with 1 proton is
Hydrogen, atom with 11 protons is sodium, and so on.
– Mass number: the total numbers of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. This is also called nucleon number.
The atom of element and the Periodic table

In one periodic table, the position of the atomic number and mass number may follow the format
above (atomic mass on the left top and mass number on the left bottom). However, other
periodic table may follow a different format. Pay attention to the key given whenever using the
periodic table. And notice that greater number should refer to the mass number.
The atom of element and the Periodic table
• How are the elements arranged in the Periodic table?
– The atoms of elements are arranged in the Periodic table from left
to right based on the increasing atomic number.
• How does the mass number of atom change from left to right
and downward the periodic table?
– the mass number also increases (the mass of the atom of the
element increases).
The atom of element and the Periodic table
• The higher mass number, the more mass the atom has.
• For example:
– Mass number of carbon (12C) = 12.
Mass number of hydrogen (1H) = 1.
Mass of carbon atom is 12 times the mass of hydrogen atom.
• We can also prove that atom of one element has greater mass
than an atom of another element by determining the density
of the element.
The atom of element and the Periodic table
• Density is mass for a fixed volume. One of the common unit of
density is g/cm3. The unit of density contains the unit of mass
as numerator and unit of volume as denominator.
• Formula of density =
The atom of element and the Periodic table
• Example:
The mass of a piece of 1 cm3 of sodium is 0.97 gram. The mass

of 1 cm3 of iron is 7.87 gram.

Electron arrangement in atom (Electronic structure)
• What holds the electrons in place (atom stay in tact)?

 Electrostatic forces between proton and electron

• Electrostatic forces are the attraction force between positive

and negative charges.
 Electronic structure: electron arrangement in atom
• As the numbers of proton of an atom increases, and so the
numbers of its electrons. Protons are within the nucleus.
Electrons are moving around the nucleus. As the numbers of
electrons within an atom increases, how are the electrons
arranged in an atom?
• On the left is a model to show the electronic structure of Argon
atom.
• The electrons within an atom are arranged following a certain
pattern or rule.
• Electron that is closer to the nucleus has a lower energy level
n=1
compared to the one that is further from the nucleus.
• Accordingly, the electron shell closer to the nucleus is lower in
n=2 energy than the one further from the nucleus.
• Numbers of shell or energy level are assigned from lower
n=3 energy level to higher energy level as 1, 2, 3 and so on.
• Electrons must completely fill the lower energy shell before
filling the next.
 Electronic structure: electron arrangement in atom
The filling of electrons in the shells for
the first 20 elements in the periodic
table (from H to Ca) follows this rule:
• The first shell (n = 1) can contain
maximum 2 electrons
• The second shell (n = 2) can contain
n=1
maximum 8 electrons
• The third shell (n = 3) can contain
n=2 maximum 8 electrons
n=3
 Electronic structure: electron arrangement in atom

For example: the electronic structure of

Argon atom on the left. Argon has 18
electrons. Following the rule, then the
arrangement of electrons in Argon atom
is as follow:
• The first shell (n = 1) has 2 electrons.
n=1 • The second shell (n = 2) has 8
electrons
n=2 • The third shell (n = 3) has 8 electrons
n=3
 Electronic structure: electron arrangement in atom

• The electronic structure of an atom can be

written as follow:
numbers of electrons in shell number 1,
numbers of electrons in shell number 2,
..and so on.
n=1
• For example: from the model of electronic
structure of argon on the left, the electronic
n=2 structure can be written as follow: 2, 8, 8.
n=3
 Worksheet: Electron arrangement of atom

• Worksheet: Electron arrangement of atom

Questions (Homework – Graded 10%):

There are 4 electrons in
one atom of beryllium and
atom is neutral. Therefore,
there are 4 protons in one
atom of beryllium
There are 5 electrons in one atom of 6 electrons in one carbon
boron, therefore, there are 5 protons in atom
one atom of boron. The mass number
of boron is 11. Therefore numbers of
neutrons = 11 - 5 = 6
Answers:
The question asks to draw the structure of an atom of
magnesium. Therefore the drawing must include the
information of the nucleus of magnesium. The numbers of
protons and neutrons must be clearly indicated in the drawing.

The periodic table shows that atomic number of Mg is 12 and

mass number of Mg is 24. Therefore there are 12 protons and
12p
12n 12 neutrons in the nucleus of Mg and there are 12 electrons
within the atom.

Magnesium is within the first 20 elements in the periodic table.

Therefore, the arrangement of electrons is as follow:
• The first shell (n = 1) = 2 electrons
• The second shell (n = 2) = 8 electrons
• The third shell (n = 3) = 2 electrons
Answers:
The electronic structure of the atom is 2, 8, 3.
It means there are 13 electrons.
Since atom is neutral, therefore numbers of electrons = number
of protons = 13.
Number of protons is the atomic number of the element.
From the periodic table, element with the atomic number = 13 is
Aluminium.
Answers:
The labelled atomic diagram of element
fluorine

The periodic table shows that atomic number of F is 9 and

mass number of F is 19. Therefore there are 9 protons and 10
9p
10n neutrons in the nucleus of F and there are 9 electrons within
the atom.

Fluorine is within the first 20 elements in the periodic table.

Therefore, the arrangement of electrons is as follow:
• The first shell (n = 1) = 2 electrons
• The second shell (n = 2) = 7 electrons
Models of atom
• The idea of what atom and the structure of atom has developed
through many years.
• In the history some scientists conducted experiments to know about
atom and based on their observations, they proposed models to
describe atom.
• The diagram of atom that we have discussed is Bohr’s model of
atom. Before Niels Bohr proposed his model, another scientist
called Rutherford suggested a model of atom.
Models of atom
Rutherford’s model of atom:
• Most part of an atom is an empty space.
• Nucleus is at the center of the atom and it has
positive charge. The nucleus is dense and massive
and therefore the mass of atom is mainly the mass
of the nucleus.
• Atom has electrons which are negatively charged.
Electrons are located around the nucleus shown as
a “cloud” (they are not located in certain shells).
• The model does not provide information how the
electrons are arranged around the nucleus.
 Comparing two models of atom
Rutherford Niels Bohr
• Nucleus is made up of protons • Nucleus is made up of protons and
• Electrons are around the nucleus but neutrons
they are shown as “clouds”/with no • Electrons are around the nucleus at
specific location. certain energy levels called shells.
• Arrangement of electrons in terms • Each shell can contain up to a
how they are distributed is not particular numbers of electrons.
specified.
Do the checklist on p. 52
2.2. Trends in Groups within Periodic table
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the similarities between different elements in the
Periodic table.
2. Link the structure of the Periodic table to the structure of
elements.
3. Understand how to use the Periodic table to predict the
structure and properties of an element.
4. Apply careful observation
Activity: Interactive Periodic Table (5 – 10 mins)
• Identify which elements in the Periodic table that belong to
metals, non-metals, and metalloids by shading the elements
using different colors or different textures.
• Show an interactive Periodic table:
https://www.fishersci.com/us/en/periodic-table.html#at85
• Do “Getting started” on p. 53
 The Periodic Table
• Periodic table is a table of all known elements placed in order
of their atomic number.
• A series of elements down in one column is called group
• A series of elements in a row from left to right is called period
Group I: Alkali metals
• The members of Group I (except Hydrogen) are called alkali metals.
• The elements within a group exhibit a pattern of properties, for
examples a pattern of melting point and boiling point.

Rubidium, 37 85
Rb
Melting point of Rb must be lower than 63 and its boiling point must be lower than 777. However, when providing
an estimation good sensibility must be used when deciding the gap between the higher and the lower value.
Considering the pattern shown in the previous elements, the gaps between the values of melting points are
about 30 - 90and 300 - 400 for boiling points. So, we can use the value in between for the gap.
Group I: Alkali metals
• Down the group: the melting points and boiling points
decreases.
Group I: Alkali metals
• Aside from the patterns in melting points and boiling points,
the alkali metals exhibit a pattern when they react with water
respectively.
• Use the following link to observe the reaction between water
and lithium, sodium, and potassium respectively. Watch until
6:50 mins: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fJ6cDG6Fbeo
Questions:
Group I: Alkali metals
1. The use of goggles to protect the eyes. The use of a safety
screen. The use of forceps to hold the metal. The piece of
metal must be small.
Questions:
Group I: alkali metals (lithium reacts with water)
Group I: alkali metals (sodium reacts with water)
Group I: alkali metals (potassium reacts with water)
Group I: Alkali metals
4. Similarities:
– Each reaction shows fizzing or effervescent.
– Each reaction produces a gas which is hydrogen gas.
– Each reaction releases heat.
– Each reaction shows the movement of the metal on the surface of
the water.
– Each reaction produces an alkaline solution. The solution turns
purple when universal indicator is added.
Group I: Alkali metals
5. Differences:
Reaction with Lithium Sodium Potassium
water
Movement on the slower faster fastest
surface of water
The rate of the The metal quickly The metal The metal
reaction disappear disappears more disappears most
quickly quickly
Intensity of reaction Vigorous, heat is More vigorous, Violent reaction,
produced more heat is more heat is
released in a released, lilac flame
shorter time, is produced, a mini
sodium metal melts explosion with a
into a ball. squeaky pop sound
Group I: Alkali metals
6. The common properties:
– The metals are soft and easy to cut with a knife
– The metals are shiny but they quickly react with the oxygen in the air
and become dull
– The metals react quickly with water. They are reactive metals.
– The metals float on water. They have lower density than water.
– The metals react with water to produce an alkaline solution or produce
hydroxide ion in the solution.
– They react with water showing effervescent or fizzing as they produce
hydrogen gas.
Group I: Alkali metals
7. From the pattern of reaction shown, it can be deduced that
going down the group I, the metals becomes more reactive
and so rubidium will react more violently with water and this
is not safe to be performed in the school.
Group I: Alkali metals
8. Each of them when reacts with water it produces an alkaline
solution, the hydroxide of the metal.
Questions p. 54 - 55
Workbook 2.2A
Answers of Workbook 2.2A
Group 7: The halogens
• The members of Group 7 (The Halogens): Fluorine, Chlorine,
Bromine, Iodine and Astatine.
• The elements in Group 7 show a pattern in physical properties
such as melting point and boiling point (page 57)
Group 7: The halogens
• Based on the table on p. 57 (Textbook), state:
1. Which element has the highest melting point and boiling
point?
2. Which element has the lowest melting point and boiling
point?
3. Consider the room temperature is between 25 – 28,
state:
a) The elements that are gas at room temperature! Explain!
b) The element that is liquid at room temperature! Explain!
Answers:
1. Bromine
2. Fluorine
3. a). Fluorine and Chlorine. Fluorine boils at -188. It means fluorine and
chlorine change from liquid to gas at -188 and -34 respectively, which is
lower than the room temperature. Therefore, at the room temperature,
fluorine and chlorine are in gaseous state.
4. b). Bromine. Bromine melts at -7 and boils at 59. It means bromine
changes from solid to liquid at -7and changes from liquid to gas at 59.
Room temperature is higher than the melting point but lower than the
boiling point. Therefore, at room temperature, bromine is in liquid state.
Questions p. 57-58
Answers of Questions on p. 57
Group VII: The halogens (Summary)
• The elements belong to Group VII (Halogens) are
non-metallic elements
• Going down the group the melting point and
the boiling point increase
• At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are in gaseous
states, iodine and astatine are in solid states.
The only non-metallic element which is liquid
at room temperature is bromine
Group VII: The halogens (Summary)
• The colors of the elements going down the group is
getting darker.
• Going down the group the elements become less reactive
as the sizes of the atoms getlarger.
• All atoms of the elements of halogens have seven
outer electrons.
This is why halogens are called as Group VII
Group 8 or 0: Noble gases
• The members of Group 8 or noble gases are helium, neon,
argon, krypton, xenon and radon.
• There is a common feature in their electronic structure. All of
them have a complete outer shell. Except helium which has 2
outer electrons, the atoms of the rest of the elements have
eight outer electrons.
• Because of their complete outer shell, atoms of noble gases are
unreactive. Therefore, the noble gases are unreactive elements.
• Each element of noble gases exists in nature as single atoms.
Group 8 or 0: Noble gases
Group 8 or 0: Noble gases
• A balloon is filled with
helium gas. Inside the
balloon are the atoms
of helium.
Group 8 or 0: Noble gases
• The noble gases also show a pattern of properties down the
group.

• Going down the group, the melting point and boiling point of
noble gases get higher
Do the worksheet on summary
2.3. Why element react to form compounds
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the structure of an ion and compare it with that of
an atom.
2. Explain how ionic and covalent bonds are formed.
3. Explain what a molecule is
4. Write the formulae of some ionic and covalent compounds
 Getting started
1. The electronic structure of lithium: 2, 1
Draw the atomic structure of lithium.
2. The electronic structure of fluorine: 2, 7
Draw the atomic structure of fluorine

3p 9p
4n 10n

Lithium Fluorine
 Reviewing on the atomic structure
• Atoms have electrons arranged in different electron shells or
energy levels around the nucleus.
• The last shell is called the outermost electron shell and it has
the highest energy level.
• Numbers of electrons in an atom is the same as the number of
protons in that atom.
 Reviewing on the atomic structure
• The atomic number tells us how many protons there are in the
atom.
• An electron has an electrical charge of -1 and a proton has a
charge of 1+.
• Atoms have no overall charge because there are an equal
number of protons and electrons.
• Electrons are held in place by electrostatic forces.
Why are noble gases unreactive?
They have fully filled or complete outer shells,
making their atoms stable.

Why do atoms of elements

undergo reactions?
They undergo reactions to achieve the stable
electronic configuration of a noble gas. Outer shells of the noble gases

How do atoms of elements undergo

reactions?
They do so by gaining, losing or sharing electrons.

When atoms of elements react, they form chemical bonds.

These chemical bonds hold the atoms of the elements together.

72
 Understanding ion
Atom of elements react by losing electrons.

Sodium has one outer electron. Sodium atom loses one electron to attain a noble
gas electronic structure (complete outer shell). The atom is no longer neutral. Now it
has an excess of 1+ charge. Sodium atom becomes a positive ion with the charge of
1+. All metals of group I (alkali metals) form positive ion with the charge of 1+
 Understanding ion
• Draw the formation of potassium ion from atom of potassium
(19 protons).

+
19p 19p
20n 20n

Potassium atom Potassium ion (K+)

2,8,8,1 [2,8,8]+
 Understanding ion
Atom of elements react by losing electrons.

Magnesium atom has two outer electrons. Magnesium loses two electrons to attain a
noble gas electronic structure (complete outer shell). Now, there are 12 protons and
10 electrons in the atom. The atom is no longer neutral. Now it has an excess of 2+
charge. Magnesium atom becomes a positive ion with the charge of 2+. All metals of
group II (alkaline earth metals) form positive ion with the charge of 2+.
 Understanding ion
• Draw the formation of calcium ion from atom of calcium (20
protons, 20 neutrons).

2+

20p 20p
20n 20n

Calcium atom Calcium ion (Ca2+)

2, 8, 8, 2 [2, 8, 8]2+
Practice: Draw how lithium becomes lithium ion and write
the electronic structure of the ion

+
3p 3p
4n 4n

Lithium atom Lithium ion

2, 1 [2]+
 Understanding ion
Atom of elements react by gaining electrons.

Chlorine atom has seven outer electrons. Chlorine gains or takes one electron to
attain a noble gas electronic structure (complete outer shell). Now, there are 17
protons and 18 electrons in the atom. The atom is no longer neutral. Now it has an
excess of 1- charge. Chlorine atom becomes a negative ion with the charge of 1-. All
non-metals in group VII form negative ion with the charge of 1-.
Practice: Draw how fluorine becomes fluoride ion write the
electronic structure of the ion

-
9p 9p
10n 10n

Fluorine atom Fluoride ion

2,7 [2,8]-
 Understanding ion
Atom of elements react by gaining electrons.

Oxygen atom has six outer electrons. Oxygen gains or takes two electrons to attain a
noble gas electronic structure (complete outer shell). Now, there are 8 protons and 10
electrons in the atom. The atom is no longer neutral. Now it has an excess of 2-
charge. Oxygen atom becomes a negative ion with the charge of 2-. All non-metals
in group VI form negative ion with the charge of 2-.
Practice: Draw how chlorine atom becomes chloride ion
write the electronic structure of the ion

1-

17p
17p
18n
18n

Chlorine atom
2,8, 7 chloride ion
[2,8, 8]-
Practice: Draw how sulfur becomes sulfide ion write the
electronic structure of the ion

2-

16p
16p
16n
16n

Sulfur atom
2,8, 6 Sulfide ion
[2,8, 8]2-
 Why atom becomes an ion?
• Because the atom does not have a complete outer shell and so
unstable. They want to achieve a more stable electronic
structure by gaining or losing electrons.
How are ionic compounds formed?

● An ionic bond is a strong electrostatic attraction

between oppositely charged ions.
● Compounds that contain ionic bonds are called
ionic compounds.
● For example, sodium reacts with chlorine to form
an ionic compound called sodium chloride.
● The formation of an ionic bond is shown by a
dot-and-cross diagram. Formation of an ionic bond in sodium chloride

● In a dot-and-cross diagram,
○ dots (●) represent the electrons in one atom;
○ crosses (✕) represent the electrons of another
atom.

84
Ionic bonding and ionic compound
• The positive ion of a metallic element and the negative ion of
a non-metallic element are attracted to each other through
electrostatic forces. This is called ionic bond.
• When two elements, metal and non-metal, combine through
chemical reaction, generally ionic bonds are formed. Thus,
they form an ionic compound.
• Ionic compounds are compounds formed through ionic
bonding.
Ionic bonding and ionic compound
• An alkali metal reacts with a halogen (an element in group VII)
to form an ionic compound.
• Notice the following: The name of the positive ion
– sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride from the metal is the same
as the name of the metal.
The name of the negative
Name of Name of ion contains the prefix which
the positive the
ion from negative is from the name of the
the metal ion from element and the ending “ide”
Ionic compound the non-
metal
Ionic bonding and ionic compound
• Notice the following:
– sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride

Name of the Name of the

positive ion negative ion
from the from the
metal non-metal

– lithium + fluorine  lithium fluoride

– potassium + bromine  potassium bromide
– rubidium + iodine  rubidium iodide
Step to draw diagram of ionic compound
• From the name of the ionic compound, deduce the
• Sodium chloride positive ion and negative ion: sodium ion and chloride
ion.
• Deduce the group of the metal that forms the positive
ion and then its charge: Group I, 1+.
• Using periodic table, deduce the numbers of electrons
of the ion: 11 – 1 = 10
• Draw the dot and cross diagram of the positive ion.
• Deduce the group of the non-metal that forms the
negative ion then its charge: group VII, 1-
• Using periodic table, deduce the numbers of electrons
of the ion: 17 + 1 = 18
[2, 8]+ [2, 8, 8]- • Draw the dot and cross diagram of the negative ion
using another symbol of electrons. Remember, the
Na+ Cl- additional electron must be the same symbol as in the
positive ion of the metal.
Chemical formula :
NaCl
Diagram of ionic compound
• Lithium chloride
• Positive ion: lithium ion.
• Lithium ion: Group I. The charge: 1+
• Numbers of electrons of the ion: 3 – 1 = 2.
• Draw the dot and cross diagram of lithium
ion.

Li Cl
• Negative ion: chloride ion.
• Chloride ion: Group VII. The charge: 1-
• Numbers of electrons of the ion: 17 + 1 =
18.
• Draw the dot and cross diagram of chloride
[2]+ [2, 8, 8]- ion.

Li+ Cl-
Chemical formula :
LiCl
Diagram of ionic compound
• Potassium Fluoride

K F

[2, 8]-
[2, 8, 8]+
K+ F-
Chemical formula:
KF
 Diagram of ionic compound
Magnesium oxide

2+ 2-
12p 8p
12n 8n

Magnesium ion Oxide ion

[2,8]2+ [2,8]2-

Chemical formula:
MgO
 The diagram of ionic compounds
• When oppositely charged ion combined in ionic bonding to
form ionic compound, the final result is that the ionic
compound must have no net charge (total of positive charge =
total of negative charge).
• Accordingly, it is possible to form an ionic compound that
involves more than two ions. Therefore, the diagram of dot
and cross may have more than two ions. Some examples are
as follow:
 Diagram of ionic compound
Calcium chloride

2+
17p
18n 17p
20p 18n
20n

[2, 8, 8]-
[2, 8, 8]-
chloride ion
Calcium ion (Ca2+) chloride ion
Chemical formula: [2, 8, 8]2+
CaCl2
 Diagram of ionic compound
Sodium oxide

+ 2- +
11p
12n
8p 11p
12n
8n

Sodium ion Oxide ion Sodium ion

[2, 8]+ [2,8]2- [2, 8]+
Chemical formula:
Na2O
 Formula of an ionic compound
• Step to deduce the formula of ionic compound when the
name of the compound is given:
– Identify the element that forms the positive ion
– Use the periodic table to know the group of the element and
deduce the charge of its positive ion
– Write the symbol and formula of the positive ion
– Identify the element that forms the negative ion
– Use the periodic table to know the group of the element and
deduce the charge of its negative ion.
 Formula of an ionic compound
• Step to deduce the formula of ionic compound when the
name of the compound is given:
– Determine the least common multiple of the values of both charges.
– Deduce the numbers of positive ion using this formula:
– Deduce the number of negative ion using this formula:
– The formula of the compound: Put the number of the positive ion as
a subscript behind the symbol of the element. Put the number of
negative ion as a subscript behind the symbol of the element.
 Trend of reactivity among alkali metals (Group I)

• Generally, atom of metallic element (atoms of the metals)

undergo chemical reaction by electrons.
• Therefore, the atom of the metal to lose the electron,
the metal becomes more reactive.
• Electrons are in place in the shell (at certain distance from the
nucleus) because of between the protons
in the nucleus and the electrons.
 Trend of reactivity among alkali metals (Group I)

• When the outer electrons are closer to the nucleus, they feel
attraction toward the nucleus. So, they are harder to
out from the atom.
• When the outer electrons are further from the nucleus, they
feel attraction toward the nucleus. So, they are
to move out from the atom.
• Accordingly, metal with size of atom have outer
electrons that are from the nucleus. Therefore, their
outer electrons are to go out. The atom becomes more
 Why alkali metals becomes more reactive going down the
group

• Going down the group, the size of the atom gets larger.
• Each of them has 1 outer electron.
• The outermost electron gets further from the nucleus, so it gets easier to go out from the
atom because it is less attracted to the nucleus. The atom is easier to lose electron and
become positive ion.
• The metal becomes more reactive.
Trend of reactivity among halogens (Group VII)
• Generally, atom of non-metallic element (atoms of the non
metals) undergo chemical reaction by electrons.
• Therefore, the atom of the non-metal to gain the
electron, the non-metal becomes more reactive.
• The non-metal atom gains electrons to fill the
electron shell. This process is supported by the from
the protons in the nucleus.
Trend of reactivity among halogens (Group VII)
• The outermost electron shell of non-metal atom with
size has a distance from the nucleus. Therefore, the
atom is to gain the electron to the outermost
shell. Accordingly, non-metal atom with size becomes
more
 Why halogens become less reactive going down the group
(more reactive from bottom to top)

• Going down the group, the size of the atom gets larger.
• Each of them has 7 outer electron.
• The outermost shell gets further from the nucleus and less attracted by the nucleus.
So, it is harder for the atom to gain an electron/to add an electron to the outer shell.
The atom is harder to become negative ion.
• The halogen becomes less reactive.
Identify the ionic compounds

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15
 Understanding ionic bonding and ionic compound
Metallic element and non-metallic element combine in a
chemical reaction by losing and gaining electrons or by electron
transfer. This is because atom of metallic element gives out
electron to form the positive ion and the atom of non metallic
element receives the electron to form the negative ion. Positive
ion of the metal atom and the negative ion of the non-metal
attract to one another by electrostatic forces. This is called ionic
bonding. The metallic element and non-metallic element react
to form an ionic compound.
How about when atoms of non-metals combine in chemical
reaction?

Watch this illustration: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=LkAykOv1foc
 Understanding covalent boding
Atoms of non-metals can undergo chemical reaction by sharing
electrons.
Example:
A and B are both hydrogen atoms. Both of
them have 1 proton and 1 electron.
Therefore, both of them have 1 outer
electron. Every atom of hydrogen does not
H H
have a complete outermost shell like noble
gas. So, atoms of hydrogen are unstable.
How do they achieve a stability to exist in
A B nature as hydrogen gas?
 Understanding covalent bonding
Atoms of non-metals can undergo chemical reaction by sharing
electrons.
Both hydrogen atoms aim to achieve stable
Example:
electronic structure by having complete outermost
shell similar to helium.
Since none of them can give out electron, both
atoms achieve complete outer shells by sharing
H H one outer electron to each other. Now each of the
hydrogen atoms has 2 electrons in its outermost
shell. So, each of them has a complete outer shell
similar to helium. 2 hydrogen atoms combine
A B
together by sharing 2 electrons together in their
outermost shell.
 Understanding covalent bonding
Covalent bond is the chemical bond formed when atoms are
sharing pair of electrons together in their outermost shell.

When 2 or more atoms combine through covalent bonding, a

H H particle called molecule is formed.

A molecule that contains two atoms is called diatomic

molecule. Accordingly, hydrogen gas is one of examples of
A B elements that exist in nature as diatomic molecules.

The formula of hydrogen is H2 because the particle of

hydrogen gas is a molecule that contains 2 hydrogen atoms.
 Understanding covalent bonding

A and B are both fluorine atoms. Both of

them have 9 proton and 9 electron.
9p 9p Therefore, both of them have 7 outer
10n 10n
electron. Every atom of fluorine does not
have a complete outermost shell like noble
gas. So, atoms of fluorine are unstable.
How do they achieve a stability to exist in
A B nature as fluorine gas?
 Understanding covalent bonding
Both fluorine atoms aim to achieve stable
electronic structure by having complete outermost
shell similar to neon. Each of them needs one
electron to complete their outer shell.
Since none of them can give out electron, both
9p 9p atoms achieve complete outer shells by sharing
10n 10n one outer electron to each other. Now each of the
fluorine atoms has 8 electrons in its outermost
shell. So, each of them has a complete outer shell
similar to neon. 2 fluorine atoms combine together
A B by sharing 2 electrons together in their outermost
shell. Accordingly, the molecule of fluorine consists
of 2 fluorine atoms. Formula of fluorine is F2.
 Understanding covalent bonding
Covalent bonding can happen between 2 or more atoms of
different elements.

Hydrogen has 1 outer electron and chlorine

has 7 outer electrons. Both of them do not
H
Cl have a complete outermost shell like noble
gas. H atom needs 1 electron to complete
its outer shell. Cl atom needs 1 electron to
complete its outer shell.
 Understanding covalent bonding
Covalent bonding can happen between 2 or more atoms of
different elements.

When hydrogen and chlorine reacts,

hydrogen atom shares 1 electron to
H Cl chlorine and chlorine atom shares 1
electron to hydrogen. They share 2
electrons together in their outer shells to
achieve complete outer shells. Molecule of
hydrogen chloride (HCl) is formed.
HCl
 Understanding covalent bonding

A nitrogen atom has 5 outer electrons and one

hydrogen atom has 1 outer electron. Nitrogen
H N needs 3 electrons to complete its outer shell
H
and each hydrogen atom needs 1 electron to
complete its outer shell.
 Understanding covalent bonding

When nitrogen reacts with hydrogen,

each hydrogen atom shares 1 electron
H
with nitrogen atom and nitrogen atom
shares 3 electrons with 3 hydrogen
atoms.
Now nitrogen has 8 outer electrons
(complete outer shell) and each
H N
H hydrogen atom has 2 outer electrons
(complete shell).
Molecule of ammonia is formed. The
formula is NH3
Question 13 - 16

Cl Cl
 The diagram of covalent bonding of some elements and
compounds
• Oxygen molecule (O2)
Each oxygen has 6 outer
electrons. Each oxygen atom
needs 2 electrons to complete its
O O outer shell. So, each oxygen atom
shares 2 electrons to each other.
At the end, two oxygen atoms
share 4 electrons together in their
outer electrons. The double
covalent bond between 2 oxygen
atoms is formed O=O.
 The diagram of covalent bonding of some elements and
compounds
• Nitrogen molecule (N2)
Each nitrogen has 5 outer electrons.
Each nitrogen atom needs 3 electrons to
complete its outer shell. So, each
N
nitrogen atom shares 3 electrons to each
N
other. At the end, two nitrogen atoms
share 6 electrons together in their outer
electrons. The triple covalent bond
between 2 nitrogen atoms is formed N≡N.
 The diagram of covalent bonding of some elements and
compounds
• Methane molecule (CH4)
Each hydrogen atom needs 1 electron to
H complete its outer shell. One carbon atom
has 4 outer electrons and it needs 4
electrons to complete its outer shell. So,
each hydrogen atom shares 1 electron to
H C
carbon atom and carbon atom shares 4
H
electrons with 4 hydrogen atoms. At the
end, carbon atom shares 4 pairs of
electrons with 4 hydrogen atoms. The
molecule of methane has the formula
H
CH4.
 The diagram of covalent bonding of some elements and
compounds
• Water molecule (H2O) Each hydrogen atom needs 1 electron to
complete its outer shell. One ocygen atom
H has 6 outer electrons and it needs 2
electrons to complete its outer shell. So,
each hydrogen atom shares 1 electron to
oxygen atom and one oxygen atom
H O shares 2 electrons with 2 hydrogen
atoms. At the end, oxygen atom shares 4
pairs of electrons with 2 hydrogen atoms.
The molecule of water has the formula
H2O.
 The diagram of covalent bonding of some elements and
compounds
• Carbon dioxide molecule (CO2) Each oxygen atom has 6 outer
electrons and needs 2 electrons to
complete its outer shell. One carbon
atom has 4 outer electrons and it
O C O
needs 4 electrons to complete its
outer shell. So, each oxygen atom
shares 2 electron to carbon atom and
carbon atom shares 4 electrons with
2 oxygen atoms. At the end, carbon
atom shares 4 electrons with each
oxygen atom. The molecule of carbon
dioxide has the formula CO2.
 Simple and giant structure
Learning objectives:
1. Learn how giant structures are formed.
2. Compare the properties of ionic and covalent substances
3. Explain how the structures of these substances relate to their
properties.
 Giant structures in ionic compounds
• Sodium chloride is an example of ionic compounds.
• The ions of sodium, Na+, and the ions of chlorine, Cl-, have
equal and opposite electrical charges so they are strongly
attracted to one another. The forces are called electrostatic
forces that act in all directions and form ionic bonds.
• The ions in sodium chloride make a giant structure known as
lattice.
• Lattice means regular arrangement.
 Giant structures in ionic compounds
• Why is the structure called giant? Because the numbers of sodium
ions and chloride ions are only fixed in their ratio, which is 1 : 1 but
the actual numbers of sodium ions and chloride ions that can form
sodium chloride is not fixed or unlimited. This can lead to a big or
giant structure of sodium chloride, depending on the numbers of
ions available.
• In the lattice structure of sodium chloride, each sodium ion is
surrounded by six chloride ions and each chloride ion is surrounded
by six sodium ions.
• Accordingly, sodium chloride forms crystals with a regular shape
because the ions are arranged in a regular pattern. Therefore, the
structure of sodium chloride is called giant ionic lattice structure.
 Giant structures in ionic compounds

Crystal of sodium chloride

Diagram of the structure of sodium chloride. Notice that sodium

ions and chloride ions arrange themselves alternatingly
positive and negative ions in regular pattern. Link:
Ionic Bond - NaCl - JavaLab
Giant ionic lattice structure of NaCl
Simple molecular structure and giant covalent structures
• Many substances that have covalent bonds are formed of
simple molecules.
• Molecule is a type of particle that is formed when two or
more atoms combine through covalent bonding.
• A simple molecule means the molecule contains a fixed or
certain numbers of atoms only.
• Examples of substance that have covalent bonds in the form of
simple molecules:
 Simple molecular structure

H2 Cl2 O2 N2
These substances are examples of elements in the
form of simple molecules. It means the particles that
make up the element are many molecules.
O3 For example: oxygen gas consists of many molecules
of O2. If we fill a balloon with oxygen gas, the particles
inside the balloon are the molecules of oxygen (O2).
Each of them is called element because each of them
has molecule that contains the same atoms.
 Simple molecular structure

H2O NH3 HCl H2O

CO2 These are examples of covalent compounds in the form

of simple molecules. It means the particles that make up
C2H4 the compound are many molecules. For example: a
glass of water contains millions of water molecules.
Each molecule of water has 1 oxygen atom and 2
hydrogen atoms.
Each of these substances is called compound because
CH3OH its single molecule contains atoms of different elements.
 Simple molecular structure

H2O NH3 HCl H2O

CO2
Another example is carbon dioxide gas. It contains
C2H4 many molecules of CO2. Each molecule of carbon
dioxide contains 1 atom of carbon and 2 atoms of
oxygen. When carbon dioxide is in solid state, a “dry
ice”, there are attraction forces between molecules of
carbon dioxide that keep the carbon dioxide in solid. The
CH3OH attraction forces between molecules is called
intermolecular forces.
 Simple molecular structure
• Intermolecular forces are also present between water
molecules. These are the attractions that keep the water in
liquid state.
• When water changes into gas, the intermolecular forces
between molecules of water are broken. The molecules of
water vapor now are free to move. The same thing happens
when dry ice changes into gas.
• Intermolecular forces are not chemical bonds. They are much
weaker than ionic bonding or covalent bonding.
Simple molecular structure
 Giant covalent structures
• Some covalent substances have a giant covalent structure. Giant
covalent structure means the substance consists of unlimited or
not fixed numbers of atoms that join in covalent bonds with one
another in a regular pattern, allowing the substance to have a
big or giant structure.
• If the compound has a giant covalent structure, the compound
is fixed in the ratio of the atoms of different elements, but the
size of the structure depend on the numbers of atoms available
to form the bonds.
• This giant covalent structure is also called macromolecule.
 Giant covalent structure
• Some examples of substances that have giant covalent
structure are: diamond and graphite.
 Diamond
• Diamond is made of carbon atoms.
• In diamond, each carbon atom forms 4 single covalent bonds
with another 4 carbon atoms. These covalent bonds are very
strong.

1 C atom forms four strong

single covalent bonds, and this is
repeated with each carbon atom
available, producing a giant
covalent lattice structure.
 PowerPoint Slides Cambridge IGCSETM Chemistry Student’s Book

Diamond
Properties of diamonds

Hard and has a high melting

Does not conduct electricity
point

Each carbon No free

All the outer
atom is It is difficult to electrons move
electrons of the
covalently break these through the
carbon atoms
bonded to four strong covalent structure to
are used for
other carbon bonds. conduct
bonding. Structure of diamond.
atoms electricity.
Diamond is the hardest
material known so far.

© 2021 Marshall Cavendish Education Pte Ltd 136

 Properties of Diamond
• Diamond is the hardest material known so far.
• Diamond is very hard because it has a rigid structure with every
carbon atom forms strong covalent bond with one another. It has
a strong, rigid, 3-D structure of lattice.
• Because of its outstanding hardness, diamond is not only used for
jewelry but more important it is used as cutting and drilling tools.
• Diamond also has a very high melting point and boiling point. The
reason: because of the strong covalent bonds between each
carbon atom and it requires a lot of energy to break this covalent
bond to melt diamond.
 Properties of Diamond
• Diamond cannot conduct electricity.
• Electrical current is produced when charged particles are able
to move. Electrical current can be produced when electrons or
ions are able to freely move.
• Diamond cannot conduct electricity because it does not have
free electrons that are able to move.
 Graphite
• Graphite is also made of carbon
atoms. One

• Graphite is composed of layers of layer in

graphite

carbon atoms arranged in arrays of

hexagonal rings.
• In one layer of graphite, 1 carbon
atom forms 3 single covalent bonds
with another 3 carbon atoms.
• Link:
https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/
graphite-5b3e3a874ca846e0b0c02
23402521e1f
 Graphite
• Carbon atom has 4 outer electrons,
each carbon atom needs 4 electrons One
to complete its outer shell and layer in
graphite
therefore each carbon atom is able to
share 4 electrons and make 4 covalent
bonds.
• In graphite, each carbon atom only
forms 3 covalent bond, it means there
is one outer electron from each
carbon atom which is free to move
because it is not used in bonding.
Accordingly, graphite has many
electrons that can freely move.
 Graphite
• The covalent bonds between carbon
atoms in each layer of graphite are One
strong. layer in
graphite

• However, the attraction forces

between the layers are weak. These
attractions are intermolecular forces.
• The weak attraction forces between
layers of graphite allow that layers to
slide over each other easily. This is
the reason why the surface of
graphite is soft and easy to come
away.
 Properties and use of graphite
• Graphite is able to conduct electricity because it has electrons that
free to move. Because of this properties, graphite is used as electrode.
• The layers of graphite are able to slide one another because of the
weak attractions between layers. Because of this properties, graphite
is used for lubricating the moving parts in machines and for pencil
lead.
• Graphite has a high melting point and boiling point due to the strong
covalent bonds between carbon atoms within each layer, therefore it
requires a lot of energy to break these bonds to melt the graphite.
 Questions 1 – 4 (p. 75)
1. Ionic bond: it is formed when atoms lose and gain electrons
to form positive ions and negative ions. The positive ions and
negative ions then are attracted to each other by
electrostatic forces. Covalent bond: it is formed when atoms
share electrons together in their outer shells.
 Questions 1 – 9 (p. 75)
2. Ionic compound
3. Molecule is a particle when two or more atoms join together
through covalent bonding.
4. Macromolecule is a covalent substance with a huge structure
of molecule where all of the atoms are joined through
covalent bonds. Examples: diamond, graphite and silicon(IV)
oxide.
Different properties of ionic and covalent substances
• In general, ionic compounds have a very high melting point and
boiling point. The reason: strong electrostatic forces that hold
the oppositely charged ions together. A lot of energy is required
to overcome the forces to melt or to boil the ionic compound.
• Covalent substances that have simple molecular structure, they
have relatively low melting point and boiling point. The reason:
they have weak intermolecular forces or attraction forces
between molecules, so less energy is required to overcome the
forces to melt or to boil the substance.
Different properties of ionic and covalent substances
• Ionic compound can conduct electricity only when it is molten (in
liquid state) or when it dissolves in water (as solution). The reason:
when the compound is in molten (liquid) or dissolved in water (in
solution), the ions are free to move. Ionic compound cannot
conduct electricity when it is solid, because in solid state, the ions
are not able to move freely.
• Covalent substances generally cannot conduct electricity because
they do not have free ions or free electrons to move. The exception
is graphite since graphite has electrons that are free to move.
 Workbook Exercise 2.4 A – 2.4C
• Homework: to be discussed in the next meeting.