25/09/2023

Elements, Compounds
and Mixtures
OCR Gateway 2016 Chemistry topic 2

W Richards

The Weald School

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C2.1 Purity and Separating
Mixtures
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Pure Substances
A “pure” substance is defined as a substance that doesn’t
contain any impurities (i.e. anything other than the substance
it’s supposed to be).

Are the following pure or impure?

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Melting Points and Mixtures
I’m using this
distillation
kit to heat up
a liquid:

Substance Boiling Point

While doing this I found that (OC)
one liquid started forming in
Water 100
the conical flask at around
60OC and the other at around Phenol 180
100OC. What was in the flask Bromine 59
at the start? Ethanol 78
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Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction is when atoms are basically rearranged
into something different. For example, consider burning
methane:

Methane + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water

Notice that no atoms were made or destroyed in this

reaction, they were simply rearranged. Therefore we can
write the Law of the Conservation of Mass:
Mass of products = mass of reactants
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Balancing equations
Consider the following reaction:

Sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

Na
Na + O +
H H H
H H O

This equation doesn’t balance – there are 2 hydrogen

atoms on the left hand side (the “reactants” and 3 on
the right hand side (the “products”)
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Balancing equations
We need to balance the equation:

Sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

Na
O H
Na H H O

+ + H H
O Na
H H H
Na
O

Now the equation is balanced, and we can write it as:

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
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Some examples

2 Mg + O2 2 MgO
Zn 2 + HCl ZnCl2 + H2
2 Fe + 3 Cl2 2 FeCl3

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H 2O

CH4 2+ O CO2 2+ H 2O
2

Ca 2 + H 2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
2 2
NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2 O
2 3 2 4
CH3OH + O2 CO2 + H 2O
Atomic mass 25/09/2023

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS, Ar

(“Mass number”) = number of
protons + number of neutrons

SYMBOL

PROTON NUMBER = number of

protons (obviously)
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Mass and atomic number
How many protons, neutrons and electrons?
 Relative formula mass, Mr 25/09/2023

The relative formula mass of a compound is the relative atomic

masses of all the elements in the compound added together.

Relative atomic mass of O = 16

E.g. water H2O:

Relative atomic mass of H = 1

Therefore Mr for water = 16 + (2x1) = 18

Work out Mr for the following compounds:

1) HCl H=1, Cl=35 so Mr = 36
2) NaOH Na=23, O=16, H=1 so Mr = 40
3) MgCl2 Mg=24, Cl=35 so Mr = 24+(2x35) = 94
4) H2SO4 H=1, S=32, O=16 so Mr = (2x1)+32+(4x16) = 98
5) K2CO3 K=39, C=12, O=16 so M = (2x39)+12+(3x16) = 138
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Simple Compounds and Empirical Formulae

Carbon
Methane, CH4 Water, H2O dioxide, CO2

Key
Hydrogen

Oxygen
Ethyne, C2H2
Sulphuric Carbon
acid, H2SO4
Sulphur
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Introduction to Mixtures
Mixtures are very useful in every day life. For example, alloys
like steel are a mixture of metals. Here are other alloys:

Gold mixed with Aluminium mixed Aluminium mixed

copper with magnesium with chromium
and copper
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Mixtures
Before After

A mixture like this is formed

when two or more elements
are mixed together but NOT
chemically combined.

The chemical properties of

the salt and water remain
unchanged.

1 00 g 105 g
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Element, mixture or compound?

Salty water Hydrogen

Q. Which of these
substances are “pure”?

Hydrochloric acid Air

Diamond
Sodium chloride (salt)
 Separating Mixtures 1 – Filtration 25/09/2023
and
crystallisation of rock salt
In this practical we tried to separate rock salt – a
mixture of ____ and sand. To do this we
followed four steps:
1) We ground the rock salt using a ______ and
mortar,
2) We dissolved the mixture,
3) We _________ it,
4) We evaporated the remains and the salt
__________.

The sand didn’t _________, so we were able to filter it out. The salt did
dissolve, so we had to ________ the remains to get the salt back.
Filtration can be used to remove something that doesn’t dissolve,
evaporation can be used to separate something that does dissolve.

Words – filtered, salt, pestle, evaporate, dissolve, crystallized

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Separating Mixtures 2 – Simple Distillation
This apparatus can be used to
separate water and ethanol
because they have different
_____ ______. The ______
will evaporate first, turn back
into a _______ in the
condenser and collect in the
_______. The water remains
in the round flask, as long as
the _______ does not
exceed water’s boiling point.
This method can be used to
separate any liquids with
different boiling points such
as the fractional distillation
of ____ ___.
Words – temperature, boiling points, ethanol, beaker, liquid, crude oil
 Separating Mixtures 3 - 25/09/2023

Fractional distillation
Crude oil can be separated by fractional distillation as each liquid making
up crude oil has a different boiling point:

Fractions with
low boiling
points condense
at the top

Fractions with
high boiling
points condense
at the bottom
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Separating Mixtures 4 - Chromatography
Chromatography is a technique used to find out what unknown
mixtures are made of. Substances are separated by the
movement of a “mobile phase” through a “stationary phase”.
In paper chromatography, the _____ is the
stationary phase and the ______ is the mobile
phase.

Different _____ spread out and stop at different

points due to their different ____ and properties.
They can then be identified by comparing to
standard reference materials. For each
R G B component, a _______ equilibrium is set up
between the stationary and mobile phases.

Words – chemicals, paper, dynamic, solvent, sizes

Core Practical - Chromatography 25/09/2023

Chromatography can be used to separate a mixture of

different inks. Some example questions…

R G B X 1 2 3 Z

1) Ink X contains two 2) Which ink is ink Z

different colours. What made out of?
are they?
 Rf value
25/09/2023

The Rf value is a way of measuring how far a substance has

moved:
This line marks the distance
travelled by the solvent

Distance travelled by substance

Rf value =
Distance travelled by solvent

R G B
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Example questions
Calculate the Rf values of the following:

10cm

8cm

5cm
2cm

R G B
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Gas Chromatography
Gas chromatography works by separating a
mixture and then timing how long it takes a
substance to travel through the machine.
Different molecules travel at different speeds.

How many molecules

Abundance are here and which
of different ones are the most
molecules abundant?

A mass
spectrometer is
used to find the
masses of these
molecules and Molecule
identify them
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Using Chromatography
Chromatography can
be used to test which Sudan 1
foods contain which
ingredients. For
example, consider the
dye Sudan 1, which was Dye 1
found in 450 foods in
2005. Which dye
contains Sudan 1?
Dye 2

Dye 3
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Separating mixtures summary
1) A mixture containing something that DOES dissolve can
be separated using __________
2) A mixture of liquids with different boiling points can be
separated using _________
3) A mixture of different inks can be separated using
_______
4) A mixture containing something that DOES NOT
dissolve can be separated using _________

Distillation, chromatography, evaporation or filtration?

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C2.2 Bonding
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Introduction to Metals
Most of the elements are metals:

These elements
are metals – they
H He
form “positive
Li Be
ions” B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Fe Ni Cu Zn Br Kr

Ag I Xe

Pt Au Hg

These elements
This line divides metals from are non-metals –
non-metals. Metals react they form
with oxygen to form oxides. “negative ions”
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Properties of metals
Metals have very high melting points (which means that they are usually
_____) whereas non-metals will melt at lower ___________
All metals conduct heat and __________ very well, whereas non-metals
don’t (usually)
Metals are strong and ______ but bendable. Non-metals are usually
_____ or they will snap.
Metals will _____ when freshly cut or scratched, whereas non-metals are
usually dull.
Metals have higher _______ than non-metals (i.e. they weigh more)
Metals can be used to make ______ (a mixture of different metals)

Words - alloys, electricity, solids, weak, densities,

temperatures, tough, shine
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More about The Periodic Table
Elements in the same group have the same
number of electrons in the outer shell (this
corresponds to their group number)

H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Fe Ni Cu Zn Br Kr

Ag I Xe

Pt Au Hg

E.g. all group 1 metals These elements have These elements

have __ electron in __ electrons in their have __ electrons
their outer shell outer shells in their outer shell
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Metals vs Non-metals
Recall that most of the elements are metals:
These elements are metals – they:
1) Have high melting points This line divides
metals from non-
2) Can conduct electricity metals
H He
3) Are dense
Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Fe Ni Cu Zn Br Kr

Ag I Xe

Pt Au Hg
These elements are non-metals – they:
1) Have low melting and boiling points
2) Don’t conduct electricity
3) Are not very dense
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Electron structure
Consider an atom of Potassium:

Nucleus
Potassium has 19 electrons.
These electrons occupy
specific energy levels “shells”…

The inner shell has __ electrons

The next shell has __ electrons
The next shell has __ electrons Electron structure
The next shell has the remaining __ electron = 2,8,8,1
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Electron structure
Draw the electronic structure of the following atoms:

Nucleus Nucleus Nucleus

Electron structure Electron structure Electron structure

= 2,5 = 2,8,2 = 2,8,8,2
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Electron Shells
As you move down through the periods an extra
electron shell is added:

E.g. Lithium has 3

electron Hin the He
configuration 2,1
Li Be B C N O F Ne

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca
Sodium hasFe11 Ni Cu Zn Br Kr

electrons in the Ag I Xe
configuration 2,8,1
Pt Au Hg

Potassium has 19 electrons in

the configuration __,__,__,__
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Different forms of elements and compounds
Cl- Na+ Cl-
Elements and compounds can form many
different structures, including: Na+ Cl- Na+

Cl- Na+ Cl-

1) Ionic, like sodium chloride:
Na+ Cl- Na+
2) Giant covalent
structures, like graphite: + + + + +
+ + + + +
3) Metallic, like iron:
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
4) Simple covalent
H molecules, like methane: + + + + +

H C H H H H
H
5) Polymers, like polythene:
C C C C
H H H H
H
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Introduction to Bonding
Cl Hi. My name’s Johnny Chlorine.
I’m in Group 7, so I have 7
electrons in my outer shell

Cl
I’d quite like to have a full outer
shell. To do this I need to GAIN
an electron. Who can help me?
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Ionic Bonding introduced
Cl Here comes a friend, Sophie Sodium
Na

Hey Johnny. I’m in Group 1 so I have

one electron in my outer shell. I don’t
like only having one electron there so
I’m quite happy to get rid of it. Do you
Okay want it?

- +
Cl Na

Now we’ve both got full outer shells

and we’ve both gained a charge which
attracts us together. We’ve formed
an IONIC bond.
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Covalent Bonding introduced
Cl Here comes another one of my
friends, Harry Hydrogen

Hey Johnny. I’ve only got one

electron but it’s really close to my H
nucleus so I don’t want to lose it.
Fancy sharing?

Cl H

Now we’re both really stable.

We’ve formed a covalent bond.
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Ions
An ion is formed when an atom gains or loses electrons and
becomes charged:

- The electron is negatively charged

+
The proton is positively charged

+
If we “take away” the electron
we’re left with just a positive +
charge:

This is called an ion (in this case, a positive hydrogen ion.

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Ionic bonding
This is where a metal bonds with a non-metal (usually). Instead of sharing
the electrons one of the atoms “_____” one or more electrons to the
other. For example, consider sodium and chlorine:

Sodium has 1 electron on its outer shell

and chlorine has 7, so if sodium gives
Na its electron to chlorine they both have Cl
a ___ outer shell and are ______.

+ -
A _______ A _________
charged Na Cl charged
sodium ion chloride ion
(cation) (______)

Group 1 _______ will always form ions with a charge of +1 when they react
with group 7 elements. The group 7 element will always form a negative ion
with charge -1.
Words – full, transfers, positively, negatively, metals, anion, stable
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Some examples of ionic bonds -
Magnesium
chloride: 2+
Cl Cl

Mg
Mg + -

Cl Cl
MgCl2

Calcium oxide:
2+
2-

Ca + O Ca O

CaO
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Covalent Bonding recap
Cl Here comes another one of my
friends, Harry Hydrogen

Hey Johnny. I’ve only got one

electron but it’s really close to my H
nucleus so I don’t want to lose it.
Fancy sharing?

Cl H

Now we’re both really stable.

We’ve formed a covalent bond.
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Covalent bonding
Consider an atom of hydrogen:

Notice that hydrogen has just __ electron in its outer

shell. A full (inner) shell would have __ electrons, so two
hydrogen atoms get together and “_____” their electrons:

Now they both have a ____ outer shell and are

more _____. The formula for this molecule is H2.

When two or more atoms bond and form a molecule

by sharing electrons we call it ____________
BONDING.

Words – covalent, 1, 2, share, full, stable

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Dot and Cross Diagrams
Water, H2O:

H
H O
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Dot and Cross Diagrams
Oxygen, O2:

O O
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Dot and cross diagrams
Water, H2O:
Step 1: Draw the atoms with Step 2: Put the atoms together and
their outer shell: check they all have a full outer shell:

H
O H O H

Oxygen, O2:

O O O O
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Dot and cross diagrams
Nitrogen, N2: Methane CH4:

N N
H C H

Ammonia NH3: Carbon dioxide, CO2:

H N H
O C O
H
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Other ways of drawing covalent bonds
Consider ammonia (NH3):

H N H H N H

H H

H N H H N H

H H

What are the limitations of each of these models?

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Explaining Reactions
1) Example 1 – a group 7 element + a metal:
+ -

Na + Cl Na Cl

The metal loses an electron and forms a +1 ion. The halogen gains an
electron and forms a -1 ion. These ions are attracted to each other – an
ionic bond.

2) Halogen + non-metal:

H + Cl Cl H

The atoms are held together by their shared electrons – a covalent bond.
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C2.3 Properties of Materials
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Dot and Cross Diagrams revision
Recall the dot and cross diagram
for methane: H

And for carbon dioxide: H C H

H
O C O

Notice that the presence of four electrons in its outer shell

means that carbon can form up to four bonds (or two double
bonds). This ability to form four bonds means that carbon is
able to form families of similar compounds, chains and rings.
 Giant Covalent structures (“lattices”) 25/09/2023

1. Diamond – a giant
covalent structure with a
very ____ melting point
due to ______ bonds
between carbon atoms

2. Graphite – carbon atoms arranged in a layered

structure, with free _______ in between each
O layer enabling carbon to conduct _________ (like
Si
metals). Graphite has a high melting point.
O
O O
3. Silicon dioxide (sand) – a giant covalent
Si Si O
structure of silicon and oxygen atoms with
O
O strong _____ causing a high ______ point
O O
O and it’s a good insulator as it has no free
electrons

Words – melting, high, electrons, bonds, strong, electricity

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Using Covalent Structures
Element/ Property Uses Why?
compound
Carbon – Very hard Drill tips Extremely
diamond strong
covalent
structure
Silicon High melting Furnace Very difficult
dioxide point (1610OC) linings to melt

Silica glass Doesn’t Electrical No free

conduct insulators electrons to
electricity carry charge
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Graphene
Graphene is a single layer
of carbon atoms and is
only one atom thick.

Q. What are the possible

uses for graphene?
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Fullerenes
Carbon can also be used to make structures called “fullerenes” (carbon
atoms forming an empty shape). Fullerenes are compounds used for
applications such as drug delivery, lubricants, catalysts and nanotubes and
they have structures based on carbon atoms forming hexagonal rings:

“Buckminster
A “carbon nanotube” –
fullerene” – the first
high tensile strength,
fullerene to be
high electrical
discovered in 1960.
conductivity and high
thermal conductivity
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Predicting States
Here is some data about the halogens in group 7. What state
would each one be in at room temperature?

Element Melting Point (OC) Boiling Point (OC)

Flourine -220 -188

Chlorine -101 -34

Bromine -7 59

Iodine 114 184

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Properties of simple molecules
Recall our model of a simple covalent compound like hydrogen,
H2:
H Hydrogen has a very
H
low melting point and a
very low boiling point.
Why?

1) The intermolecular 2) When a substance is

forces are very weak so heated it is the intermolecular
each one of these H2 forces that are overcome,
molecules doesn’t really care NOT the covalent bond in
about the others – it’s very each molecule, which is much
easy to pull them apart. stronger!
Also, the molecules do not carry a charge so covalent
compounds usually do not conduct electricity.
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Larger Molecules
Recall this data about group 7. Can you explain why the
melting and boiling points get bigger as you go down the group?

Element Melting Point (OC) Boiling Point (OC)

Flourine -220 -188

Chlorine -101 -34

Bromine -7 59

Iodine 114 184

The intermolecular forces get bigger as the molecules get

bigger. This is why melting point and boiling points go up.

Giant Ionic Structures
When many positive and negative ions
are joined they form a “giant ionic
lattice” where each ion is held to the
other by strong electrostatic forces
of attraction (ionic bonds).
25/09/2023
Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+
Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-
Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+
Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-

If these ions are strongly held together what affect would

this have on the substance’s:
1) Melting point?
2) Boiling point?
3) State (solid, liquid or gas) at room temperature?
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Nanotechnology
Task: To find out what nanotechnology is and what it is used for

1) What is nanotechnology?

2) Define the terms nanoparticle and nanocomposite

3) Give 6 examples of its uses

4) Describe some of the future developments of this technology

5) Describe some of the ethical concerns over this technology

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Nanotechnology
Definition:
Nanotechnology is a new branch of science that refers to structures
built from a few hundred atoms and are 1-100nm big. They show
different properties to the same materials in bulk, partly because
they also have a large surface area to volume ratio and their
properties could lead to new developments in computers, building
materials etc.

Q. Where does the large surface area come from?

1) What is the total surface area of a cube of sides 1cm? 6cm2
2) What is the surface area to volume ratio for this cube? 6:1

3) What is the total surface area of a cube of sides 10cm? 600cm2

4) What is the surface area to volume ratio for this cube? 0.6:1

5) Which one has the largest surface area to volume ratio – The smaller
one!
the large one or the smaller one?
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Two examples of nanotechnology
The “Nano Carbon Pro” tennis racket uses
nanoparticles to increase its strength.

Silver nanoparticles can be used to give

fibres antibacterial properties – look at
what they do to e-coli bacteria:

Normal E-coli affected

e-coli by silver
nanoparticles
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Another example – Sun cream

Nano particles are used in some sun creams. The smaller

particles give better skin coverage and more effective
protection against skin cancer. Why do you think some people
are against it?