25/09/2023

Global
Challenges
OCR Gateway 2016 Chemistry topic 6

W Richards

The Weald School

C6.1 Improving Processes and
25/09/2023

Products
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Extracting Metals
Some definitions:

A METAL ORE is a mineral or mixture of

minerals from which it is “economically
viable” to extract some metal.

Most ores contain METAL OXIDES (e.g. rust = iron oxide).

To “extract” a metal from a metal oxide we need to REDUCE

the oxygen. This is called a REDUCTION reaction. To put it
simply:

Iron “Reduce” the oxygen

Iron Oxide
ore to make iron
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How do we extract these metals?
Potassium Metals ABOVE CARBON, because of
Sodium their high reactivity, are extracted
Calcium by ELECTROLYSIS, which is very
expensive!
Magnesium
Aluminium Metals BELOW CARBON are extracted
by heating them with carbon. This is a
Carbon
“displacement reaction” – the carbon is
Zinc oxidised and the metal is reduced.
Iron
Tin
Carbon Iron Oxide
Lead
Copper
Silver These LOW REACTIVITY metals won’t
Gold need to be extracted because they are
Platinum SO unreactive you’ll find them on their
own, not in a metal oxide
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Extracting metals quiz
1) What is an ore?
2) In what form are metals usually found in the Earth?
3) How do you get a metal out of a metal oxide?
4) What is this type of reaction called?

Type of metal Extraction process Examples

High reactivity (i.e anything

above carbon)

Middle reactivity (i.e.

anything below carbon)

Low reactivity
 Electrolysis 25/09/2023

Passing an electric current through an electrolyte will cause

the electrolytes to decompose and the ions to move:

Positive
electrode
+ - Negative
(“anode”) Cu2+ electrode
+ - (“Cathode”)
Electrolyte
+ Cl- -
solution + Cu2+ -
containing Cl-
copper ions
and chloride Cu2+
ions Cl-
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Electrolysis
During electrolysis the substance being broken down is called
the “electrolyte”.
When we electrolysed
copper chloride the _____
chloride ions moved to the
______ electrode and the
______ copper ions moved
to the ______ electrode –
OPPOSITES ATTRACT!!!

= chloride ion

= copper ion
 Biological ways of extracting metals
25/09/2023

(higher only)
“Phytomining” – growing _____ that
absorb metals and then ______
them to extract the metal from __.

“Bioleaching” – using ______ to

produce leachate solutions that
contain metal _________.

Q. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each

method?

Words – compounds, plants, bacteria, burning, ash

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Reversible Reactions recap
Some chemical reactions are reversible. In other words, they
can go in either direction – the reactants will make the
products and the products will then make the reactants again:

A + B C + D

heat
e.g. Ammonium chloride Ammonia + hydrogen chloride
NH4Cl NH3 + HCl
cool

The direction of the reaction can be affected by changing the

conditions. There is usually a trade-off between the rate of
reaction and the position of equilibrium. For example, consider
the Haber Process and the Contact Process…
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Making Ammonia (higher only)
Guten Tag. My name is Fritz Haber and I won the Nobel Prize
for chemistry. I am going to tell you how to use a dynamic
equilibrium in a reversible reaction to produce ammonia, a very
important chemical. This is called the Haber Process.

Nitrogen + hydrogen Ammonia

Fritz Haber,
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 1868-1934

You get the raw materials from the air (nitrogen) and
natural gas (hydrogen). To produce ammonia from nitrogen
and hydrogen you have to use three conditions:

Nitrogen • High pressure Mixture of NH3, H2 and

• 450O C N2. This is cooled
Hydrogen • Iron catalyst causing NH3 to liquefy.

Recycled H2 and N2
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Haber Process: Economics (higher only)
The Haber Process is a reversible reaction…
Endothermic, increased temperature Exothermic, increase temperature

A + B C + D A + B C + D

Nitrogen + hydrogen Ammonia

Endothermic Exothermic
N2 + 3H2 2NH3

1) If temperature was DECREASED the amount of ammonia formed would

__________...
2) However, if temperature was INCREASED the rate of reaction in both
directions would ________ causing the ammonia to form faster
3) If pressure was INCREASED the amount of ammonia formed would
INCREASE because there are less molecules on the right hand side of
the equation
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Haber Process Summary
A low temperature increases the yield of ammonia but is too
slow

A high temperature improves the rate of reaction but

decreases the yield too much

A high pressure increases the yield of ammonia but costs a

lot of money
To compromise all of these factors, these conditions are used:

• 200 atm pressure Mixture of NH3, H2

Nitrogen
• 450O C and N2. This is
Hydrogen cooled causing NH3
• Iron catalyst
to liquefy.

Recycled H2 and N2
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Other ways of changing the equilibria
As well as changing the __________, there are other ways of changing
the position of an equilibrium:
1) Add more reactant – this will push the equilibrium to make more
________ (the position of the equilibrium moves to the _____)

2) Take away a product – this will also push the ________ to the right

3) Increasing the concentration of the reactants

4) Increase the ______ – this will favour the side with the lower number
of __________, e.g. when making ammonia:
Nitrogen + hydrogen Ammonia
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
Notice that there are less molecules on the right so increasing the
pressure will cause ______ ammonia to form.
Words – more, pressure, temperature, right, products, molecules
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The Contact Process (HT only)
The Contact Process is a process used to make sulfuric acid
from sulfur, water and air.
Step 1: Burn sulfur
Sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide
S + O2 SO2

Step 2: react SO2 with oxygen using a vanadium catalyst at

450OC
Sulfur dioxide + oxygen sulfur trioxide
2SO2 + O2 2SO3

Step 3: react SO3 with water

Sulfur trioxide + water sulfuric acid
SO3 + O2 H2SO4
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The Contact Process – the economics
Increasing the temperature would _____ the rate of reaction
but it also reduces the ____ and pushes the equilibrium to the
left. For this reason, a _____ temperature of 450OC is used.
A higher pressure would push the equilibrium to the _____
the but extra cost is not worth it, so the process is carried
out at normal pressure.
A catalyst is used to _____ __ the production of sulfur
trioxide but it does not change the position of the ________.

Words – right, increase, equilibrium, speed up, yield,

compromise
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Graphs of Reaction Conditions vs Rate (HT only)
Q. What would this graph probably look like and why?
Rate of
reaction

Temperature
of system
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Choosing a Reaction Pathway (HT only)
Hi. We’re trying to make some
chemicals and need to decide which
reaction pathway to use. What
factors do we need to consider
when deciding which reaction
pathway to use?

1) What is the atom economy of each pathway?

2) What is the % yield of each pathway?
3) What rate does each reaction happen at?
4) What is the equilibrium position of each pathway?
5) How useful are the by-products of each reaction?
 25/09/2023
Ammonium-based Fertilisers
Guten tag. When ammonia dissolves in water
it produces an alkaline solution:

NH3 + H20 NH4OH

Fritz Haber,
1868-1934 This solution can be used to make fertilisers
like ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate
and ammonium sulfate. Very useful! I won
the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for my work in
making ammonia as my discovery has led to
increased crop yields.
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Making Ammonium Sulfate in a lab
A basic method:

1) Mix sulfuric acid and ammonia

solution in an evaporating basin and
stir it

2) Check that the solution is neutral

3) Partially evaporate the solution and

leave to dry so that crystals form

The large scale industrial production of ammonium sulfate

requires the production, through several stages, of ammonia
and sulfuric acid first. Finding uses for by-products is an
important part of the process.
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Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs)
LCAs are carried out to assess the environmental impact of
products at each of these stages:
Step 1: Raw materials and Manufacture
What resources are needed? What effect
will this have on the environment?

Step 2: Use
How much energy will be needed? What is
the effect on the environment?

Step 3: Disposal
How is the product disposed of? What is the
effect on the environment?
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An example LCA – Carrier Bags
Q. Consider the humble plastic bag. What steps are
involved in its life cycle and how can the carbon footprint
of each step be reduced?

Steps in the bag’s life cycle Ways to reduce the pollution or

1) Drill for crude oil
2) Put the oil through fractional
distillation
3) Crack alkanes to make ethene
4) Use heat to polymerise ethene
5) Transport plastic bags to shops
6) Transport bags to landfill sites
environmental cost
1) Use recycled materials
2) Reduce consumption of the
bags
3) Manufacture them closer to
shops
4) Recycle the bags after use
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Recycling
Why recycle metals?

1) Less space will be needed for landfill

sites
2) Recycled metals only need about 1/10th
of the energy to produce compared to
producing new metals
3) Recycling saves on raw materials –
plastics, glass and ceramics come from
limited raw materials
4) Less excavation and mining costs

Reduce, reuse, recycle!

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Two Examples of Recycling
Metal
Metals can be recycled by melting
and recasting into different
products. Sometimes a substitute
can be used, e.g. some scrap steel
can be added to iron to reduce the
amount of iron needed.

Glass
Glass bottles can be crushed and
melted to make other glass
products.
 25/09/2023
Viability of Recycling
Sometimes using raw materials has less environmental impact
then using recycled materials.
Is the raw
How much energy is material finite?
transport using?

Factors to think Is the

How much material
demand for about when deciding
to use recycled or able to be
the product recycled?
is there? raw materials

What is the Is it economically

environmental viable to collect,
impact of the sort and recycle?
process?
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Alloys
Steel is an “alloy” – i.e. a mixture of metals. Here are other
alloys:

Bronze is an alloy
of copper and tin.
Gold mixed with Aluminium mixed Brass is an alloy of
copper, silver or with magnesium copper and zinc.
zinc and copper –
strong but low
density
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Two more alloys

Duralumin, an alloy made Solder, a metal with a low

from aluminium and melting point used in
copper. Stronger than electronics.
aluminium on its own.
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Using impurities to strengthen Iron
In pure iron all
impurities are
removed. This
makes the iron soft:

Adding 1% impurities
makes the iron much
stronger:
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Making steel
Strong Strength

Hardness

Amount of
Weak carbon
0.5% 1% 1.5% added (%)

Steel with a low Steel with a high Steel with chromium

carbon content is carbon content is and nickel is called
easily shaped strong but brittle stainless steel
 25/09/2023
Rusting
Task: To investigate what causes rusting

Tube 1 – Tube 2 – Tube 3 – Tube 4 –

drying boiled water + air water + air
agent water + salt
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Rusting
Task: To investigate what causes rusting

No rust No rust Rust Lots of rust

Iron + oxygen + water hydrated iron oxide

 25/09/2023
Ways to prevent rust
There are several ways to prevent rust:

1) Electroplating
2) Sacrificial protection (using a more
reactive metal to coat the iron)
3) Using oil or grease
4) Painting
 25/09/2023
Galvanising and Sacrificial Protection
“Galvanising” is when iron is coated with a
layer of zinc which stops oxygen getting to
the iron and also acts as a sacrificial metal.

Sacrificial protection works by using a metal

that’s more reactive than iron. The more
reactive metal loses electrons instead of iron.

Tin plating works by coating the iron in tin, e.g. in food

cans. However, this only works if the tin remains
intact – if it is scratched the iron rusts more quickly
than if it wasn’t coated.
 25/09/2023
Ceramics
Most of the glass we use is soda-lime glass, made
from _____, sodium carbonate and _______. We
also use borosilicate glass (using boron trioxide),
which has a higher ______ point.

Clay ceramics (including pottery and

bricks) are made by shaping wet
_____ and then heating in a _____.

Words – furnace, clay, melting, limestone, sand

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Polymers
Depending on the materials used and the conditions under
which they are made, polymers will have different properties.
Consider the example of poly(e)thene:
High Density Polythene Low Density Polythene
(HDPE) (LDPE)
- Stronger - Weaker
- Stiffer - More flexible
- Higher crystallinity - Less crystallinity
 25/09/2023
Composites
A “composite material” is a material made from two other materials.
Fibres or fragments of one material (the “reinforcement”) are surrounded
by a material called a “binder” or “matrix”. Some examples:

Composite Matrix/ Reinforcement Uses

material binder fibre/fragment
Concrete Cement Sand and Buildings
and water crushed rock

Composite Adhesives Wood fibres Buildings,

wood (e.g. furniture
plywood)
Natural Lignin Cellulose fibres Buildings,
wood furniture

Carbon Polymer Carbon fibres Sports

fibre or nanotubes equipment
composites
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C6.2 Organic Chemistry
 25/09/2023
Hydrocarbons and crude oil
Crude oil is a mixture of HYDROCARBONS
(compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen).
Some examples:

H H
Most of the hydrocarbons in crude
H C C H
oil are called alkanes. Alkanes are
H H chemicals that form a homologous
Ethane series and only have single carbon-
carbon bonds, like ethane and
butane.
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H

Butane
 25/09/2023
General Formulae for Alkanes
Instead of circles, let’s use letters…
H H H
H C H H C C H

H H H
Methane (n=1) Ethane (n=2)

H H H H H H H
H C C C H H C C C C H

H H H H H H H

Propane (n=3) Butane (n=4)

General empirical formula for alkanes = CnH2n+2

 25/09/2023
Alkenes
Alkenes are different to alkanes; they contain DOUBLE
COVALENT bonds. For example:
ALKANES

ALKENES
Ethane Ethene

Butane Butene
This double bond means that alkenes have the potential to join
with other molecules – this make them REACTIVE.
 25/09/2023
General Formulae for Alkenes
H H
H C C H

Ethene (n=2)

H H H H H H H
H C C C H H C C C C H

H H H

Propene (n=3) Butene (n=4)

General formula for alkenes = CnH2n

 25/09/2023
Functional Groups
The term “functional group” refers to the part of a molecule
that helps determine that molecule’s reactions. For example:

Alkenes have the functional group H H

C=C. This carbon double bond H C C H
causes the alkene to react in
certain ways. Ethene (n=2)

Alkenes combust in the same way

alkanes do but undergo “incomplete
combustion”, causing a smoky flame.
 25/09/2023
Alcohols
Alcohols are a homologous series with a functional group –OH.
Some examples:
H H H
H C O H H C C O H

H H H
Methanol (n=1) Ethanol (n=2)
Ethanol can be oxidised using
Methanol is an important raw
agents or microbes to form
material used in the
ethanoic acid, the main acid in
manufacture of fuels, adhesives
vinegar (a flavouring and
and solvents.
preservative).

General formula for alkanes = CnH2n+1OH

The next alcohols in this series are propanol and butanol.

Write their formula and draw their chemical structure.
 25/09/2023
Carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids form a homologous series with the functional
group –COOH. The presence of the –COOH gives carboxylic
acids their properties.
H H H
O O O
H C H C C H C C C
O H O H O H
H H H

Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid Propanoic acid

Carboxylic acids are found in foods and personal care

products.

The next acid in this series is butanoic acid. Write its formula
and draw its chemical structure.
 25/09/2023
Burning Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons can be burned (combustion) to release energy.

Here’s what happens during the complete combustion of

methane:
H H O O
O O H H
C C
H O
H O O H O
H

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

During this process the carbon and hydrogen are oxidised to

produce carbon dioxide and water.

Q. Try writing equations to show the combustion of ethane,

propane and butane.
 25/09/2023
Reactions of Alkenes
Most of the reactions of alkenes are “addition” reactions. In
other words, the double bond is broken and new atoms are
“added” to the molecule.
Br Br

For example, consider

the reaction between
butene and bromine:
H H

H C C C C H

H H H H
 25/09/2023
Reactions of Alkenes
1) With hydrogen (at 150OC and with a nickel catalyst)
H H H H H H
H C C C H + H2 H C C C H

H H H H

2) With water (steam, at high temperature and pressure)

H H H H H H
H C C C H + H2O H C C C H

H OH H H

3) With halogens at room temperature

H H H H H H
H C C C H + Cl2 H C C C H

H Cl Cl H
 25/09/2023
Oxidation of Alcohols
Alcohols can be oxidised using potassium manganate to form
carboxylic acids:

H H H
O
H C C O H + oxygen H C C
O H
H H H
Ethanol Ethanoic acid

Task:
Now draw structural formulae to represent the reactions of
propanol and butanol in the formation of propanoic acid and
butanoic acid.
 25/09/2023
Monomers and Polymers
H H Here’s ethene again. Ethene is called a
C C MONOMER because it is just one small
H H molecule. We can use ethene to make
plastics…
Ethene

Step 1: Break the double bond

Step 2: Add
the molecules
together:

This molecule is called POLYETHENE,

and the process that made it is called
ADDITION POLYMERISATION
 25/09/2023
Another way of drawing it…
Instead of circles, let’s use letters…
H H H H H H H H

C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
Ethene Ethene Poly(e)thene

General formula for addition polymerisation:

n C C C C
n
H CH3 H CH3
e.g. n C C C C
H H H H n
 25/09/2023
Some examples
H H H H
n C C C C
H H H H n

H H H H
n C C C C
Cl H Cl H n

H Cl H Cl
n C C C C
Br H Br H n
 25/09/2023
Condensation Polymerisation (HT only)
Condensation polymerisation involves monomers with two functional groups.
When they react small molecules such as water tend to be lost, hence the
term “condensation”.
An example, consider reacting a molecule with two functional carboxylic
acid groups with another molecule with two functional alcohol groups:

O H O H H

H O C C C O H H O C C O H

H H H
Carboxylic acid functional groups Alcohol functional groups

O H O H H O H O H H

C C C O C C O C C C O C C O

H H H H H H
 25/09/2023
General Equation for Condensation Polymerisation

O H O H
n H O C C C O H n H O C O H
H H

O H O H

n C C C O C O 2n H2O
H H
 25/09/2023
How to make a Polymer by Condensation
(HT only)
Using tweezers, pull up a thread of nylon

Solution of decanedioyl dichloride in

cyclohexane poured on top

Solution of 1,6-diaminohexane in deionised

water
 25/09/2023
DNA
Some facts:
DNA is a large molecule essential for
____. It encodes genetic _______
for the development and functioning
of living organisms.
Most DNA molecules are two polymer
______ made up of four different
monomers called ________, in the
shape of a double _____. Other
naturally occurring polymers include
starch, proteins and ________.

Words – nucleotides, instructions, cellulose, chains, life, helix

 25/09/2023
Crude Oil recap
Crude oil is a mixture of HYDROCARBONS
(compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen).
Some examples:

H H
Most of the hydrocarbons in crude
H C C H
oil are part of the homologous
H H group called alkanes (general
Ethane formula CnH2n+2).
Each alkane has a different boiling
H H H H point depending on the length of its
H C C C C H chain. Therefore we can separate
alkanes using “fractional
H H H H
distillation”…
Butane
 25/09/2023
Fractional distillation
Crude oil can be separated by fractional distillation. The oil is evaporated
and the hydrocarbon chains of different lengths condense at different
temperatures:

Fractions with
low boiling
points condense
at the top

Fractions with
high boiling
points condense
at the bottom
 25/09/2023
Fuels and Feedstock
Due to carbon’s ability to form different compounds within the same
family, fractions produced by fractional distillation can be used to produce
fuels and feedstock for the petrochemical industry:

Alkanes as fuels Alkanes used for

feedstock to make…
 How to do Cracking
25/09/2023

Method 1 – Catalytic Cracking

Gaseous
hydrocarbon
Long chain
hydrocarbon

Heated
catalyst Liquid
hydrocarbon

Method 2 – Steam Cracking

The alkanes are heated and vaporised (at

very high temperatures) and are then diluted
with steam. They are then heated again for
a very short time.
 25/09/2023
Alkaline vs Rechargeable Batteries
In non-rechargeable
batteries the chemical
reactions stop when one of
the reactants has been used
up. Alkaline batteries are
non-rechargeable.

In rechargeable batteries
the chemical reactions are
reversed using an external
electric current.
 25/09/2023
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells work by using the
reaction between hydrogen
and oxygen to produce an
electric current:

1) The hydrogen atom loses

an electron (this is called
“oxidation”)
2) They then pass through
the electrolyte
3) The oxygen atoms gain two
electrons each
(“reduction”).

The whole process is called a “redox” reaction.

 25/09/2023
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are also useful as a potential energy
source for __________ as:

1) They provide _______

2) They are very _______
3) They have no ____ ____
4) They are _________

They are also being considered for cars but

have two main disadvantages: fuel cells often
have poisonous ________ and producing the
hydrogen and oxygen will use energy
elsewhere.

Words – lightweight, spacecraft, water, moving parts,

efficient, catalysts
 C6.3 Interpreting and25/09/2023

Interacting with Earth systems

 25/09/2023
The Earth’s Atmosphere
For the last 200 million years the atmosphere has remained roughly the
same – it contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% noble gases and about
0.03% CO2
Carbon dioxide, water vapour Oxygen Nitrogen Noble gases
 25/09/2023
Evolution of the Earth’s Atmosphere
Carbon Methane Ammonia Oxygen Nitrogen Others
dioxide
The early
atmosphere was like
the present-day
atmosphere of
Venus or Mars

4 Billion years 3 Billion years 2 Billion years 1 Billion years Present day
 25/09/2023
Evolution of the Earth’s Atmosphere
Volcanic activity
releases nitrogen, CO2, Evidence for the
methane, ammonia and early atmosphere
water vapour into the is limited. Why
atmosphere. The water is that?
vapour condenses to
form oceans.

4 Billion years 3 Billion years 2 Billion years 1 Billion years Present day

Carbon from CO2 becomes locked up in

sedimentary rocks as carbonates and fossil fuels.
As the oceans form by condensing water vapour
the carbonates and fossil fuels become locked
underground, decreasing the amount of CO2.
 Changes in Oxygen and CO2
25/09/2023

Somewhere around 2.7 billion years ago, algae and plants arrived and
started taking in carbon dioxide and producing oxygen. A billion years
later, there was enough oxygen for animals to evolve.

4 Billion years 3 Billion years 2 Billion years 1 Billion years Present day

Q. What are the equations for photosynthesis?

Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Chlorophyll

Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
What problems do these next
25/09/2023

pictures show?
25/09/2023
 25/09/2023
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming
Global levels of Carbon Dioxide in PPM

Is there a
link?
 25/09/2023
The Greenhouse Effect
1) Heat and light energy reach
us from the sun (higher 3) …some of the
wavelengths such as visible heat escapes back
light)… into space…

4) …while some of it is
reflected back to the
Earth by a layer of
greenhouse gases
(water vapour, CO2
2) …a lot of this heat is and methane) – this is
reflected off the Earth’s called The Greenhouse
surface as lower Effect
wavelength infra red…
 25/09/2023
Humans Causing Greenhouse Gases
How do the following activities affect the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?

1) Excessive burning of fossil fuels…

2) Large scale deforestation…

3) Large scale cattle farming

 25/09/2023
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming
Global levels of Carbon Dioxide in PPM

Many scientists
believe that
human activities
will cause global
warming.

What reasons would

people have for believing
this?

What reasons would stop

people believing global
warming is happening?
 25/09/2023
Effects of Global Climate Change
What possible effects of climate change do these pictures show?
 25/09/2023
Other ways to reduce the effect
Here are some other ways to reduce the release of greenhouse gases:

What factors might limit

these options?

Use better Offset with Increase recycling

insulation renewable energy

Personal
choice

Carbon
capture
 Pollution
25/09/2023

Some examples of pollution…

Carbon dioxide, water vapour, carbon monoxide are
caused by the burning of ____ _____. Carbon
monoxide is a ____ gas and is not easily detected due
to being ________.

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide

cause ____ ____ which damages trees
and buildings and _________ problems
in humans.

Particulates (unburned _______) can make buildings

dirty and worsen breathing difficulties and cause
global ______.

Words – hydrocarbons, dimming, fossil fuels,

odourless, acid rain, respiratory, toxic
 Combustion of Fuels 25/09/2023

H H O O
O H H
Lots of C
O
C
oxygen: H O
H O O H O
H
Methane + Oxygen Carbon + Water
dioxide

H O
H H O H
O O
C O
H C H H
Some H O
O
oxygen: H H C
O H O
H
C O
O O
H H H
H
Methane + Oxygen Carbon + Water
monoxide
Other products of burning fuels
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O
Sulphur S O S
O
dioxide: O

Sulphur + Oxygen Sulphur

dioxide

O
N N
Nitrogen N
O
O
monoxide: N
O

Nitrogen + Oxygen Nitrogen

monoxide
O
N O N O
Nitrogen N
O
O
O N
O O
dioxide:
Nitrogen Nitrogen
+ Oxygen
monoxide dioxide
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Water
Amazing facts about water:
1) 95% of your body mass is water (94% in women due to a higher body
fat content)
2) Dinosaurs would have drunk the same water you do
3) Water dissolves more substances than any other liquid – most ionic
substances are soluble and most covalent substances are insoluble
4) Around 75% of the world’s surface is made of water
5) To feel thirsty you need to lose around 1% of your body water
6) 5,000 children die every day due to not having clean drinking water
7) An average person in the West uses 200-300 litres of water every day
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Water
Our water supplies obviously contain various microbes and
dissolved substances. To be used as drinking water (to make it
“potable”) it has to be treated:
The Water Treatment Process

1) Sedimentation 2) Filtration 3) Chlorination

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Other ways to treat water
1) Distilling seawater to boil off clean
water – very expensive!

2) Using bacteria
to remove trace
elements

3) Using a membrane filter

to filter out bacteria

4) Aerating the water to

remove dissolved gases
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Fertilisers
Here’s a bag of NPK fertiliser. What’s so
special about it?
Some facts:
1) NPK contains nitrogen, phosphorus and
______ compounds.
2) Use of _______ improves ______
productivity.
3) We need to use fertiliser to ensure we
have enough _____ for the world.
4) Fertiliser is added to soil to replace
nutrients that are taken in by ______.
5) However, over use of fertiliser may
cause _________.
Words – fertiliser, food, eutrophication, potassium, farming, plants
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Ammonium-based Fertilisers
Guten tag. When ammonia dissolves in water
it produces an alkaline solution:

NH3 + H20 NH4OH

Fritz Haber,
1868-1934 This solution can be used to make fertilisers
like ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate
and ammonium sulfate. Very useful! I won
the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for my work in
making ammonia as my discovery has led to
increased crop yields.
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Making Ammonium Sulfate recap
A basic method:

1) Mix sulfuric acid and ammonia

solution in an evaporating basin and
stir it

2) Check that the solution is neutral

3) Partially evaporate the solution and

leave to dry so that crystals form

The large scale industrial production of ammonium sulfate

requires the production, through several stages, of ammonia
and sulfuric acid first. Finding uses for by-products is an
important part of the process.