Automation Department

ECE/CSC 575 – Section 1

Introduction to Wireless Networking

Lecture 7

Dr. Xinbing Wang

1
 Current Wireless Systems: Cellular Systems--UMTS

Fundamentals of cellular communications

– System capacity
– frequency reuse
– Cell splitting
– Admission control
– handoff
Universal mobile telecommunication system
(UMTS)
– Network architecture
– Functional units
– Quality of service
– Mobility management

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 Nearest Cochannel Neighbors

The cluster size, N,

N = i2+ij+j2 3
1 2
If i =2 and j = 0, then N 4
2 1
=4 3
1 2
If i = 2 and j = 1, then N
=7

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 Geometry of Hexagonal Cells

Planning for cochannel cells

Geo-location for accurate positioning

3R
i
30o
R
3R
0

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 Geometry of Hexagonal Cells (2)

Let Dnorm be the distance from the center of a

candidate cell to the center of a nearest cochannel
cell, normalized to
Let D be the actual distance between 3 R two centers of
adjacent cochannel cells.
From the geometry, we have
2
Dnorm  j 2 cos 2 (30o )  (i  j sin(30o )) 2
 i 2  j 2  ij
Considering the cluster size, N, N = i2+ij+j2, we have
Dnorm  N
D  Dnorm 3 R  3 N R
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 Number of Cells in A Cluster

A candidate cell has 6

nearest cochannel cells. Each
of them in turn has 6
neighbors. So we can have a
large hexagon. R
The area of a hexagon is
proportional to the square of
its radius, (let =2.598), D

AS  R 2
AL  D 2   [3(i 2  ij  j 2 ) R 2 ]
1
N  6( N )  3 N
3

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 Frequency Reuse Ratio

The frequency reuse ratio, q, is defined as

q = D/R
which is also referred to as the cochannel reuse ratio.
Tradeoff
– q increases with N (cluster size).
– A smaller value of N has the effect of increasing the capacity of the
cellular system and increasing cochannel interference
– Tradeoff between q and N

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 Cochannel Interference
Intracell Interference: interferences from other mobile
terminals in the same cell.
– Duplex systems
– Background white noise
Intercell interference: interferences from other cells.
– More evident in the downlink than uplink for reception
– Can be reduced by using different set of frequencies
Design issue
– Frequency reuse
– interference
– System capacity

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 Cochannel Interference (2)

For simplicity, we consider only the average channel

quality as a function of the distance dependant path loss.
Signal-to-cochannel inference ratio, (S/I), at the mobile
receiver is defined by S S
 NI
I
I
i 1
i

– S and I denote the power of the desired signal and cochannel

interference.
– NI is the number of cochannel interfering cells
– Ii is the interference power caused by transmissions from the ith
interfering cochannel cell base station.

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 Cochannel Interference (3)

The desired received signal power S is proportional to r-,

where r is the distance between the mobile and the serving
base station.  is the path loss component.
The received interference, Ii, between the ith interferer and
the mobile is proportional to (Di)- .
The white background noise is neglected in the
interference-dominant environment.
Assume the transmits powers from 
all base stations are
equal, then we have S r
 NI
I
 i D


i1

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 Cochannel Interference (4)

When the mobile is located at the cell boundary, the worst

case cochannel interference occurs as the power of the
desired signal is minimum
With the hexagon shape cellular systems, there are always
six cochannel interfering cells in the first tier, i.e., NI =6.
How many cells in the second and third tiers?
If r=R and assume 
Di=D,we have 
S r R (D /R) q
 NI  
 
I NI D NI NI
 Di 

i1

If we substitute q=D/R, the frequency reuse ratio can be

expressed as

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 Cochannel Interference (5)

Frequency reuse ratio, q

S 1/ 
q  N I  I
Example: for  =4, S/N = 18dB,
q = (6101.8)1/4  4.41.

The cluster size N should be
N = q2/3 = 6.79  7.

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 Worst Case Cochannel Interference

We need to modify our

assumption, i.e., assume D+R
Di=D.
R
The S/I ratio can be D D+R
expressed as
D
D-R
S r  R  D-R
 NI 
I 2(D  R)  2D  2(D  R)
D i


i1

S 1

I 2(q 1)4  2q4  2(q  1)4

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 Example: Worst Case Cochannel Interference (2)

A cellular system that requires an S/I ratio of 18dB. (a)

if frequency reuse ratio is 7, what is the worst-case
S/I? (b) Is a frequency reuse factor of 7 acceptable in
terms of cochannel interference? If not, what would be
a better choice of frequency reuse ratio?

 Solution:
(a). N=7  q = 3 N  4.6 If a path loss component
of =4, the worst-case signal-to-interference
ratio is S/I = 54.3 or 17.3 dB.
(b). The value of S/N is below the acceptable level
of 18dB. We need to decrease I by increasing N
=9. The S/N is 95.66 or 19.8dB.
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 Cell Capacity

Average number of MSs requesting service (Average

arrival rate): 
Average length of time MS requires service (Average
holding time): T
Offered load: a = T
– e.g., in a cell with 100 MSs, on an average 30 requests are
generated during an hour, with average holding time T=360
seconds.
Then, arrival rate =30/3600 requests/sec.
A channel kept busy for one hour is defined as one Erlang (a),
i.e., 30 Calls 360 Sec
a   3 Erlangs
3600 Sec call

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 Cell Splitting
A method to increase the capacity of a cellular system by
dividing one cell into more smaller cells.
Cell splitting reduces the call blocking probability because
the number of channels is increased. But it increases the
handoff rate, i.e., more frequent crossing of borders
between the cells.
Again we repeat the formula in calculating path loss, we
have
Pr(dBW) = P0(dBW) - 10 log10(d/d0)
Where d0 is the distance from the reference point to the
transmitter, and P0 is the power received at the reference
point.

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 Cell Splitting (2)
Let Pt1 and Pt2 be the transmit power
of the large cell BS and medium cell
BS, respectively. R
The received power at the edge of
large cell is R/2
Pr1 = P0 - 10  log10(R/d0)
The received power at the edge of
large cell, Pr1 is proportional to
Pt1 (R)- .
The received power at the edge of
R/2 cell, Pr2 is proportional to
Pt2 (R/2)- .
With the equal received power,
we have Pt1 (R)- = Pt2 (R/2)- , i.e.,
Pt1/Pt2= 2 
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 Example – Cell Splitting
Suppose each BS is allocated 60 channels regardless of the cell
size. Find the number of channels contained in a 3x3 km2 area
without cell splitting, i.e., R= 1km and with cell splitting, R/2 =
0.5km.

 The number of cells for R=1km.

1. Each large cell can cover 3.14km2, for 9 km2
approximately need 9/3.14 => 3 cells. However, 3
hexagon cannot cover a square of 3x3. A better
approximation is 4 cells. So the number of
channels is 4x60=240.
2. With small cells, the number of cells is
approximately (1/0.5)2x4 = 16. Then the number of
channels is 16x60=960.

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 Directional Antennas (Sectoring)

The basic form of antennas is

omnidirectional. Directional
antennas can increase the system
capacity.
S R  q
( ) omni  N I 
I 6 1
 i

D 3
2
i 1
1 2
3
If we sectorize the cell with
120o in each sector, the S/I
becomes S q
( )120 
I 2
The handoff between sectors is
managed by the BS.

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 Worst-Case Scenario in 120o Sectoring
Let D be the distance
between the adjacent
cochannel cells.
With the distance
approximation and use
path loss component , the D+0.7R 1
2
signal-to-interference ratio 3
is D

S R 
( )120  
I D  ( D  0.7 R ) 

End of Capacity
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 Signal Strength

Signal strength (in dB)

Cell i Cell j
-60 -60
-70 -70
-80 -80
-90
- -100
- 90
100
Select cell i on left of boundary Ideal Select cell j on right of
boundary boundary
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 Signal Strength (2)
Signal
strength
(in dB)

Cell j
Cell i
-60
-70
-60
-80
-70
-90
-80
-90 -100
-100 Signal strength contours indicating actual cell tiling. This
happens because of terrain, presence of obstacles and
signal attenuation in the atmosphere.
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 Handoff Region
Signal
Signal strength due
strength due to BSj
to BSi

Pi(x) Pj(x)

Pmin
BSi MS BSj
X1 X3 X5 Xth X4 X2
By looking at the variation of signal strength from either base
station it is possible to decide on the optimum area where
handoff can take place.
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 Handoff Procedures (1)

Mobile Switching Telecommunication Office (MSTO)

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 Handoff Procedure (2)

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 Handoff Management
Initial Phase: make decision based on the measures
of received signal strength
– Without hysteresis: a handoff is initiated as soon as the
average signal level from the new base station exceeds
that from the current BS.
– With hysteresis: a handoff is initiated when the average
signal level from the new BS exceeds that from the
current BS by a threshold amount specified by the
hystersis level.
Execution phase
– Channel assignment
– Exchange of control messages

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 Handoff Strategies
Mobile controlled handoff (MCHO): the MT initiates
and controls the procedure of handoff.
Network controlled handoff (NCHO): the network
(e.g., MSC) makes decision and initiates handoff
based on the measurements informed by BSs/APs.
MT assisted handoff (MAHO): the MT measures the
network (e.g., MSC) makes decision and initiates
handoff based on the measurements collected by the
MT.

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 Types of Handoff
Hard handoff is characterized by an MT having a radio link with only
one BS/AP at any time.
– This mode of operation is referred to as break (old connection) before make (new
connection).
Soft handoff in which an MT can simultaneously communicate with
more than one BS/AP during the handoff.
– This mode of operation is referred to as make (new connection) before break (old
connection).
Backward handoff: The handoff is predicted ahead of time and initiated
via the existing radio link.
– May be affected by a sudden loss or rapid deterioration of radio links
Forward handoff: The handoff is initiated via the new radio link.It may
result in large delay when combined with hard handoff.

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 Handoff Performance
Call dropping probability – probability that a call is
terminated due to a handoff
Handoff blocking probability – probability that a handoff
cannot be successfully completed
Handoff probability – probability that a handoff occurs
before call termination
Rate of handoff – number of handoffs per unit time
Interruption duration – duration of time during a handoff in
which a mobile is not connected to either base station
Handoff delay – distance the mobile moves from the point at
which the handoff should occur to the point at which it does
occur

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 Call Admission Control
Two types of channels available between mobile unit and BS
– Control channels – used to exchange information having to do with
setting up and maintaining calls
– Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection between users
CAC is used to avoid congestions over the radio links and to ensure the
QoS requirements of ongoing services.
Quality of service (QoS)
– Packet-level factors
– Packet loss rate, packet delay, packet delay variation, and throughput rate.
Grade of service (GoS)
– Call-level factors
– New call blocking probability, handoff call dropping probability, connection
forced termination probability.

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 CAC Procedure
Determine the amount of available channels, i.e., the
number of channels for accepting new and handoff requests.
When the N-th request arrives, i.e., there are (N-1) ongoing
services. If there are enough resources to admit the N-th
request, then the new request is admitted. Otherwise, it will
be denied.
In order to maintain the continuity of a handoff call, handoff
calls are given higher priority than new call requests.
The prioritized call admission is implemented by reserving
channels for handoff calls. This method is referred to as
guard channels.
– Fixed reservation and dynamic reservation.

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 Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)

Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of

voice channels.
The BS is the entity that allocates channels to
the requests. If all channels are used in one
cell, it may borrow a channel from its
neighbors through MSC.
Fast allocation, but may result high call
blocking probabilities.

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 Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA)

Voice channels are not allocated to each cell

permanently.
When a request is received at the BS, this BS
request a channel from MSC.
DCA can reduce the call blocking probability,
but it needs real-time data collection and
signaling transmission between BS and MSC.

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 After Class
Reading materials
– Chapter 10.1 -- skip power control, traffic engineering
– Chapter 10.2
– Chapter 10.3 -- skip TDMA format, Speech coding, data coding
– Chapter 10.5
Exercises
– What is handoff?
– What is cell cluster and cochannel cells?
– What is the Impact of cluster size on cochannel interference? How to
find the worst-case cochannel interference
– Why cell splitting and sectoring
– What is fixed channel allocation and dynamic channel allocation ?

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