M

U
E
T
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
 M Over-voltages and
U
E Travelling waves
T
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
Dr. Larik
 Over Voltage
According to IEEE standard for
M Insulation Coordination, Overvoltage
U is defined as:
E “ Voltage between one phase and
T ground or between two phases,
JAMSHORO having a crest value exceeding the
Department
corresponding crest value of the
of
Electrical
Engineering
maximum system voltage.”
  The voltage stress caused by over voltage can
damage the lines and equipments connected to
the system.
M
U
 The abnormal voltage rise over the working
voltage in the power system under certain
E conditions belongs to a kind of electromagnetic
disturbance phenomenon in the power system.
T
JAMSHORO  These abnormal over voltages may be caused due
to various reason such as, sudden interruption of
Department
of heavy load, lightening impulses, switching
Electrical
Engineering impulses etc.
 Causes of Overvoltage
The over voltages on a power system may
M be broadly divided into two main
categories:
U
1. Internal Causes
E (i) Switching surges (ii) Insulation Failure
T (iii) arcing Ground (iv) Resonance
JAMSHORO

2. External Causes i.e. lightning

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
 VOLTAGE SURGE

M  A sudden rise in voltage for a very short

duration on the power system is known as a
U VOLTAGE SURGE or “transient voltage”.

E  A voltage surge is introduced by a sudden

T change in voltage at a point in a power system.
JAMSHORO Its velocity depends on the medium in which
the surge is travelling.
Department
of  A voltage surge always has an associated
Electrical
Engineering current surge with witch it travels.
  The surge voltages can be caused by;

Lightning – switching – faults

M  High voltage surges on power system can be very destructive to

U system equipment, and thus they must be limited to safe levels.

E  When lightning strikes on a phase conductor or shield wire

(Overhead ground wire) the current of the lightning strike tends

T to divide, half going in each direction.

JAMSHORO
 If overhead ground wire is struck at the tower, current will also
flow in the tower, including its footings and counterpoise.
Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
 The current of the lightning stroke will see the surge impedance
of the conductor or conductors so that a voltage will be built up.
 SOURCES OF SWITCHING AND
OSCILLATORY SURGES INCLUDE:
 Contactor, relay and breaker operations
M  Switching of capacitor banks and loads (such as

U power factor correction)

 Discharge of inductive devices (motors,
E transformers, etc.)

T  Starting and stopping of loads

 Fault or arc initiation
JAMSHORO

 Arcing (ground) faults

Department
of
 Fault clearing or interruption
Electrical
Engineering  Power system recovery (from outage)
8
 Loose connections
 Transients
undesirable momentary deviation of the
supply voltage or load current.

M Voltage disturbance caused by sudden changes in

the power system.
U Also known as surges or spikes.
E shorter than sags or swells

T
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering

9
 Sources of Transients
The simple act of turning on (or off) a
M light, motor, copy machine or any other
electrical device can disturb the electrical
U circuit and create transients.
E In general, the larger the load current the
greater the disturbance when the load is
T switched off or on. The switching of high
JAMSHORO
loads such as electric welders and electric
Department
motors are known to create transients .
of
Electrical
Engineering

10
 Transients
 categories of transients Impulsive and
and oscillatory

M  Impulsive transients: a sudden, non-power

frequency change in the steady-state condition
U of voltage, current or both, that is unidirectional
in polarity (either +ve or –ve).
E The most common cause of impulsive transients is
lightning.
T
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering

Impulsive transient 11
 Impulsive transients(Cont)
 Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and
decay times, which can also be revealed by their spectral content.

M
 For example, a 1.2 50-s 2000-volt (V) impulsive transient
nominally rises from zero to its peak value of 2000 V in 1.2 s and then

U
decays to half its peak value in 50 s.
Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system circuits
and produce oscillatory transients.

E Protection
against surges

T and impulses is
normally
JAMSHORO achieved by
surge-diverters
and arc-gaps at
Department high voltages and
of
Electrical avalanche diodes
Engineering
at low voltages.
12
 Transients(Cont)
 Oscillatory transients: same definition as impulsive but
the only different is bidirectional in polarity (includes both +ve or –

M
ve values).

U
E
T Capacitor switching can
cause resonant oscillations
JAMSHORO
leading to an overvoltage
some three to four times of
Department the nominal rating, causing
of
Electrical tripping or even damaging
Engineering
protective devices and
13
equipment.
 Oscillatory Transients
High-frequency oscillatory transient-
M

greater than 500kHz (a typical duration
U measured in microseconds)

E  Medium-frequency oscillatory transient

– between 5kHz to 500kHz (duration
T measured in the tens of microseconds)
JAMSHORO

 Low-frequency oscillatory transient –

Department
of less than 5kHz. (duration from 0.3 to 50
ms)
Electrical
Engineering

14
 M
U
E
T
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
 IMPULSE VOLTAGE

M
U
E  Impulse voltage is a unidirectional voltage that rises quickly to a
maximum value and then decays slowly to zero. [US standard]

T  The wave shape is referred to as T1 x T2, where both values are given
JAMSHORO
in microseconds. By IEC, the T1 x T2 is 1.2 X 50, as shown in the
figure.
Department  NOTE: The peak value of the voltage is reached in 1.2 µs and the 50%
of
Electrical point on the tail of the wave is reached in 50 µs.
Engineering
 NOTE: All the voltage waves caused by lightning can conform to this
specification.
 M
U
E • Lightning hits
mid-span

T • Current divides
and then
JAMSHORO propagates
• V=IxR
Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
 EFFECTS OF OVER VOLTAGES ON POWER
SYSTEMS
Over voltage tends to stress the insulation of the
electrical equipment and likely to cause damage to
M them when it frequently occurs.

U Over voltage caused by surges can result in spark

E over and flash over between phase and ground at the
weakest point in the network, breakdown of
T gaseous/solid/ liquid insulation, failure of
JAMSHORO
transformers and rotating machines .

Department
of
Electrical
High voltage surges on power system can be very
Engineering
destructive to system equipment, and thus they must
be limited to safe levels.
 TRAVELLING WAVES
 To study transient problems on a T/L in terms of
M travelling waves, the line can be represented as
incremental sections:
U
E
T
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
  Figure shows a 2 wire line (one phase and neutral return).
The parameters L & C are per – cable length respectively.
 Line is assumed to be lossless, that is, its resistance R and
conductance G are zero.

M  Any change or disturbance can be made by closing or

opening the switch S.
U  Example: When line is connected to a voltage source, the
whole line is not energized instantaneously. Means if
E voltage v is applied to the sending end of the line by
closing switch S, the voltage v does not appear
T instantaneously at the receiving end.
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
  When, switch ‘S’ is closed, first capacitor becomes charged
immediately to instantaneous applied voltage (v).

 However, due to 1st series inductor (acts as an open ckt), the 2nd

M
capacitor does not respond immediately but is delayed. Similarly, the
3rd capacitor is delayed still more by the existence of the 2 nd inductor.

U  Therefore, the farther away from the sending end of the line the
greater is the delay.
E
T
 This gradual buildup of voltage over the transmission line conductors
can be regarded as a voltage wave is traveling from one end to the
other end, and gradual charging of the capacitances is due to
JAMSHORO
associated current wave.

Department  If the applied voltage is in the form of a surge, starting from zero and
of
Electrical returning again to zero, it can be seen that the voltages on the
Engineering intermediate capacitors rise to some maximum value and return
again to zero
  The disturbance of the applied surge is propagated along the line is in
the form of a wave.
 Such a propagation of sending end voltage and current along the
line is called travelling waves.

M
 Therefore, the voltage and current are functions of both distance ‘x’
and time ‘t’.
The series voltage drop along the elemental length of line can be
U expressed as
v  v ( x , t ) and i  i ( x , t )
E
T
JAMSHORO

Department
of  v (  x, t )  v j ( x , t )  v j ( x   x , t )
Electrical
x  x
Engineering i
 
x
L
t
dt ... (1)
 Or in the limit as Δx approaches to zero
Note: - ve signs in
i ( x , t ) equations 2 through 5
v( x , t )
 L ... (2) are due to the direction
x t of progress, at distance
M or
v
 L
i
... (3)
x, along the line.
Figure shows that, x is

U x t
Similarly, the current to charge the minute
increasing to right.
Therefore, based on the

E
given current direction,
capacitance can be expressed as
both v and i will
decrease with increasing

T i( x , t ) i( x , t )
x.

JAMSHORO
 C ... (4)
x t
Department i v
of
Electrical or  C ... (5)
Engineering x t
 The i can be eliminated from equation 3 and 5 by taking the partial derivative
of equation 3 with respect to x and equation 5 with respect to t so that:
 2v  2i
 L ... (6)
x 2
x t
and

M  2i
x t
 2v
 C 2
t
... (7)

U Substituting equation 7 into equation 6

E  2v
x 2
 LC 2
 2v
t
... (8)

T
Similarly , it can be shown that
 2i  2i
 LC 2 ... (9)
JAMSHORO x 2
t

Department Equation 8 and 9 are known as transmission line

of
Electrical equations. Propagating sine wave.
Engineering
 Velocity of Surge Propagation
Velocity of propagation of any electromagnetic disturbance in air is
equal to the speed of light (about 300,000 km/s). As we know, the

M
velocity surge propagation along the line can be expressed as

U
1
v  m/s .... (1)
LC

E
As inductance of a single – phase overhead line conductor, assuming zero
ground resistivity, is

T
2h
L  2  107 ln H /m .... ( 2)
r
And its capacitance is
JAMSHORO
1
C  F /m . . . (3)
18  109 ln ( 2h / r )
Department
of Where h = height of conductor above ground in meters
Electrical
Engineering r = radius of conductor in meters
 Therefore, the surge velocity in a single – phase overhead line can be
found as
1
v  m/s
LC
1

M
 2  107 ln 2h / r  1 / 2 
   
 18  10 9
ln ( 2 h / r )  

U  3  108 m / s

E
That means surge velocity is the same as that of light. If the surge velocity
in a 3 – phase overhead line is calculated, result will be same as 1 – phase
surge velocity of overhead line.
T Surge velocity is independent of the conductor size and spacing between
the conductors.
JAMSHORO
Similarly, surge velocity in cables can be expressed as
1
Department v  m/s
of LC
Electrical
Engineering
 3  108 / K m / s
Where K is the dielectric constant of the cable insulation.
 M
For example: its value is 2.5 to 4.0. Thus taking it 4.0, the surge
velocity in a cable can be found as:

U vcable  1.5  108 m / s

E That means surge velocity in cable is half the one in an overhead

T line conductor.

JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
 Surge Power Input and Energy
Storage
Consider the 2 – wire transmission line shown below

M
U
E When S is closed: a surge voltage & surge current wave of magnitudes v
& i, travel toward the open end of the line at a velocity of v m/s.

T Therefore, the surge power input to the line can be expressed as:
JAMSHORO P  vi W . . . . . (1)

As receiving end of the line is open – circuited & the line is assumed to be
Department
of
lossless, energy input per second is equal to energy stored per second.
Electrical
Engineering The energy stored is, in turn, equal to the sum of the electrostatic and
electromagnetic energies stored.
  The electrostatic component is determined by the voltage and
capacitance per unit length as
1
WS  C v2 ... (2)
2
Similarly, the electromagnetic component is determined by the current
M and inductance per – unit length as
Wm 
1 2
Li .. . (3)

U
2
Since the two components of energy storage are equal, the total energy
content stored per – unit length is

E Or
W  WS  Wm .. . ( 4)

T
W  2WS  2Wm .. . (5)
That is,
JAMSHORO W  C v2  L i2 ... ( 6)
Therefore, surge power can be expressed in terms of energy content and
surge velocity as
Department
of P  Wv . . . ( 7)
Electrical
Engineering Or
L i2
P   i 2 ZC . . . (8)
LC
 Or
v2
P  . . . (9)
ZC

M Interesting to note:
For a given voltage level, the surge power is greater in cables than in
U overhead lines due to the smaller surge impedance of the cable.
The general expression for the characteristic impedance of a transmission

E line is
R  j L
T
Z0 
G  j C
JAMSHORO  For a lossless line, R and G are zero, so the equation for characteristic
impedance reduces to:

Department L
of Z0 
Electrical
Engineering
C
 EXAMPLE 1
Assume that a surge voltage of 1000kV is applied to an overhead line
with its receiving end open. If the surge impedance of the line is
500Ω, determine the following:

M a.Total surge power in the line

U
b.Surge current in line
SOLUTION

E a. The total power is

P 
v2
Zc

T 
1  1012
500
 2000 MW
JAMSHORO
b. Therefore the surge current is
v
i 
Department Zc
of
Electrical
Engineering 1  106
  2000 A
500
 EXAMPLE 2
Assume that a surge voltage of 1000kV is applied to an overhead line
with its receiving end open. If the surge impedance of the line is 50Ω,
determine the following:

M a.Total surge power in the line

U
b.Surge current in line
SOLUTION

E a. The total power is

v2

T
P 
Zc
1  1012
JAMSHORO   20,000 MW
50
b. Thus, the surge current is
v
Department i 
of Zc
Electrical
Engineering
1  106
  20,000 A
50
 PROBLEM 1
Assume that a surge voltage of 10000kV is applied
to an overhead line with its receiving end open. If the
surge impedance of the line is 400Ω, determine the
M following:

U a.Total surge power in the line

b.Surge current in line
E
T
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
 PROBLEM 2
Assume that a surge voltage of 11000kV is applied to an
overhead line with its receiving end open. If the surge
impedance of the line is 40Ω, determine the following:
M a.Total surge power in the line

U b.Surge current in line

E
T
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering
 M PROBLEM 3
Assume that a surge voltage of 100kV is applied to an
U overhead line with its receiving end open. If the surge
impedance of the line is 500Ω, determine the following:
E a.Total surge power in the line
T b.Surge current in line
JAMSHORO

Department
of
Electrical
Engineering