CH 05

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
1. Metals and Their Alloys

2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
4. Composites
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Metals: The Most Important
Engineering Materials
 They have properties that satisfy a wide variety of
design requirements
 The manufacturing processes by which they are
shaped into products have been developed and
refined over many years
 Engineers understand metals
Why Metals Are Important
 High stiffness and strength ‑ can be alloyed for high

rigidity, strength, and hardness
 Toughness ‑ capacity to absorb energy better than
other classes of materials
 Good electrical conductivity ‑ Metals are conductors
 Good thermal conductivity ‑ conduct heat better than
ceramics or polymers
Starting Forms of Metals used in
Manufacturing Processes
 Cast metal - starting form is a casting
 Wrought metal - the metal has been worked or can
be worked after casting
 Powdered metal - starting form is very small powders
for conversion into parts using powder metallurgy
techniques
Classification of Metals
 Ferrous ‑ those based on iron

 Steels
 Cast irons
 Nonferrous ‑ all other metals
 Aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium,
zinc, lead, tin, molybdenum, tungsten, gold, silver,
platinum, and others
 Superalloys
Ferrous Metals
 Based on iron, one of the oldest metals known

 Ferrous metals of engineering importance are alloys
of iron and carbon
 These alloys divide into two major groups:
 Steel
 Cast iron
 Together, they constitute approximately 85% of the
metal tonnage in the United States
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
 Binary phase diagram

for iron‑carbon system,
up to about 6% carbon
The Several Phases of Iron
 The phase at room temperature is alpha (), called

ferrite (BCC)
 At 912C (1674F), ferrite transforms to gamma (),
called austenite (FCC)
 This transforms at 1394C (2541F) to delta ()
(BCC)
 Pure iron melts at 1539C (2802F)
Steel
 An alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and 2.11%

carbon by weight
 May contain other alloying elements
 Steel alloys can be grouped into four categories:
1. Plain carbon steels
2. Low alloy steels
3. Stainless steels
4. Tool steels
Plain Carbon Steels
 Carbon is the principal alloying element, with only

small amounts of other elements (about 0.5%
manganese is normal)
 Strength of plain carbon steels increases with carbon
content, but ductility is reduced
 High carbon steels can be heat treated to form
martensite, making the steel very hard and strong
Properties of Steel
 Tensile strength
and hardness
as a function of
carbon content
in plain carbon
steel (hot rolled)
AISI-SAE Designation Scheme
 Specified by a 4‑digit number system: 10XX, where

10 indicates plain carbon steel, and XX indicates
carbon % in hundredths of percentage points
 Example:
 1020 steel contains 0.20% C
 Developed by American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
so designation often expressed as AISI 1020 or
SAE 1020
Plain Carbon Steels
1. Low carbon steels - less than 0.20% C

 Applications: automobile sheetmetal parts, plate
steel for fabrication, railroad rails
2. Medium carbon steels - between 0.20% and 0.50% C
 Applications: machinery components and engine
parts such as crankshafts and connecting rods
3. High carbon steels - greater than 0.50% C
 Applications: springs, cutting tools and blades,
wear-resistant parts
Low Alloy Steels
 Iron‑carbon alloys containing additional alloying

elements in amounts totaling less than  5% by
weight
 Mechanical properties superior to plain carbon
steels for given applications
 Higher strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear
resistance, and toughness
 Heat treatment is often required to achieve
these improved properties
AISI-SAE Designation Scheme
 AISI‑SAE designation uses a 4‑digit number system:

YYXX, where YY indicates alloying elements, and XX
indicates carbon % in hundredths of % points
 Examples:
 13XX - Manganese steel
 20XX - Nickel steel
 31XX - Nickel‑chrome steel
 40XX - Molybdenum steel
 41XX - Chrome‑molybdenum steel
Stainless Steel (SS)
 Highly alloyed steels designed for corrosion resistance

 Principal alloying element is chromium, usually
greater than 15%
 Cr forms a thin impervious oxide film that
protects surface from corrosion
 Nickel (Ni) is another alloying ingredient in certain
SS to increase corrosion protection
 Carbon is used to strengthen and harden SS, but
high C content reduces corrosion protection since
chromium carbide forms to reduce available free Cr
Properties of Stainless Steels
 In addition to corrosion resistance, stainless steels

are noted for their combination of strength and
ductility
 While desirable in many applications, these
properties generally make stainless steel difficult
to work in manufacturing
 Significantly more expensive than plain C or low alloy
steels
Types of Stainless Steel
 Classified according to the predominant phase present

at ambient temperature:
1. Austenitic stainless ‑ typical composition 18% Cr
and 8% Ni
2. Ferritic stainless ‑ about 15% to 20% Cr, low C, and
no Ni
3. Martensitic stainless ‑ as much as 18% Cr but no
Ni, higher C content than ferritic stainless
Designation Scheme for
Stainless Steels
 First digit indicates general type, and last two digits
give specific grade within type
 Type 302 – Austenitic SS
– 18% Cr, 8% Ni, 2% Mn, 0.15% C
 Type 430 – Ferritic SS
– 17% Cr, 0% Ni, 1% Mn, 0.12% C
 Type 440 – Martensitic SS
– 17% Cr, 0% Ni, 1% Mn, 0.65% C
Tool Steels
 A class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for

use as industrial cutting tools, dies, and molds
 To perform in these applications, they must
possess high strength, hardness, hot hardness,
wear resistance, and toughness under impact
 Tool steels are heat treated
AISI Classification of
Tool Steels
 T, M High‑speed tool steels ‑ cutting tools

 H Hot‑working tool steels ‑ hot‑working dies
 D Cold‑work tool steels ‑ cold working dies
 W Water‑hardening tool steels
 S Shock‑resistant tool steels ‑ tools needing
high toughness, for applications such as
sheet metal punching
 P Mold steels ‑ for molding plastics and
rubber
Cast Irons
 Iron alloys containing from 2.1% to about 4% carbon

and from 1% to 3% silicon
 This composition makes them highly suitable as
casting metals
 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that
of all other cast metal parts combined, excluding
cast ingots in steel-making that are subsequently
rolled into bars, plates, and similar stock
 Overall tonnage of cast iron is second only to steel
among metals
Types of Cast Irons
 Most important is gray cast iron

 Other types include ductile iron, white cast iron,
malleable iron, and various alloy cast irons
 Ductile and malleable irons possess chemistries
similar to the gray and white cast irons, respectively,
but result from special processing treatments
Nonferrous Metals
 Metal elements and alloys not based on iron

 Most important - aluminum, copper, magnesium,
nickel, titanium, and zinc, and their alloys
 Although not as strong as steels, certain nonferrous
alloys have strength‑to‑weight ratios that make them
competitive with steels in some applications
 Many nonferrous metals have properties other than
mechanical that make them ideal for applications in
which steel would not be suitable
Aluminum and Magnesium
 Aluminum (Al) and magnesium (Mg) are light metals

 They are often specified in engineering
applications for this feature
 Both elements are abundant on earth, aluminum on
land and magnesium in the sea
 Neither is easily extracted from their natural
states
Properties of Aluminum
 High electrical and thermal conductivity

 Excellent corrosion resistance due to formation of a
hard thin oxide surface film
 Very ductile metal, noted for its formability
 Pure aluminum is relatively low in strength, but it can
be alloyed and heat treated to compete with some
steels, especially when weight is taken into
consideration
Aluminum
 Four‑digit code number to identify composition
 Two designations to distinguish wrought
aluminums from cast aluminums
 Difference is that a decimal point follows the
third digit for cast aluminums, no decimal point
for wrought product
Some Designations of Wrought
and Cast Aluminum Alloys
Alloy group Wrought code Cast

code
Aluminum  99.0% purity 1XXX 1XX.X
Copper alloy 2XXX 2XX.X
Manganese alloy 3XXX
Silicon alloy 4XXX 4XX.X
Zinc alloy 7XXX 7XX.X
Tin alloy 8XX.X
Aluminum
 Properties of Al alloys are influenced by work
hardening and heat treatment, so temper must be
designated in addition to composition
 This designation is attached to the 4‑digit code,
separated by a hyphen, to indicate treatment or no
treatment
 Temper treatments that specify strain hardening
do not apply to the cast alloys
Temper Designations for
Aluminum Alloys (Partial List)
Temper Description
F As fabricated ‑ no special treatment
H Strain hardened (wrought aluminums)
O Annealed to relieve strain hardening
and improve ductility
T Thermal treatment to produce stable
tempers other than F, H, or O
Magnesium and Its Alloys
 Lightest of the structural metals

 Available in both wrought and cast forms
 Relatively easy to machine
 In all processing of magnesium, small particles of the
metal (such as small metal cutting chips) oxidize
rapidly
 Care must be exercised to avoid fire hazards
Properties of Magnesium
 As a pure metal, magnesium is relative soft and lacks

sufficient strength for most engineering applications
 However, it can be alloyed and heat treated to
achieve strengths comparable to aluminum alloys
 In particular, its strength‑to‑weight ratio is an
advantage in aircraft and missile components
Magnesium
 Three‑to‑five character alphanumeric code
 First two characters = letters that identify principal
alloying elements (up to two elements)
 Followed by a two‑digit number that indicates,
respectively, the amounts of the two alloying
ingredients to nearest percent
 Example: AZ63A – aluminum 6%, zinc 3%,
magnesium 93%
Magnesium
 Last symbol is a letter that indicates variation in
composition or simply chronological order in which
alloy became commercially availability
 Magnesium alloys also require specification of a
temper, and the same basic scheme for aluminum is
used for magnesium alloys
Copper
 One of the oldest metals known to mankind

 Low electrical resistivity ‑ commercially pure copper
is widely used as an electrical conductor
 Also an excellent thermal conductor
 One of the noble metals (gold and silver are also
noble metals), so it is corrosion resistant
Copper Production
 In ancient times, copper was available in nature as a

free element
 Today, copper is extracted from ores such as
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
 Ore is crushed, concentrated by flotation, and then
smelted (melted or fused, often with a chemical
reaction to separate the metal from its ore)
 Resulting copper is 98% to 99% pure
 Electrolysis is used to obtain higher purity levels
for commercial use
Copper Alloys
 Strength and hardness of copper is relatively low; to

improve strength, copper is frequently alloyed
 Bronze - alloy of copper and tin (typical  90% Cu,
10% Sn), widely used today and in ancient times
 Brass - alloy of copper and zinc (typical  65% Cu,
35% Zn).
 Highest strength alloy is beryllium‑copper (only
about 2% Be), which can be heat treated to high
strengths and used for springs
Designation Scheme for Copper
 Based on the Unified Numbering System for Metals and

Alloys (UNS), using a five digit number preceded by the
letter C (for copper)
 Includes both wrought and cast copper and alloys
 Examples:
 C10100 – 99.99% pure copper
 C17000 – 98% Cu, 1.7% Be (beryllium-copper)
 C24000 – 80% Cu, 20% Zn (brass)
 C52100 – 92% Cu, 8% Sn (bronze)
Nickel and Its Alloys
 Similar to iron in some respects:

 Magnetic
 Modulus of elasticity  E for iron and steel
 Differences with iron:
 Much more corrosion resistant - widely used as (1)
an alloying element in steel, e.g., stainless steel,
and (2) as a plating metal on metals such as plain
carbon steel
 High temperature properties of Ni alloys are
superior
Nickel Alloys
 Alloys of nickel are commercially important and are

noted for corrosion resistance and high temperature
performance
 In addition, a number of superalloys are based on
nickel
 Applications: stainless steel alloying ingredient,
plating metal for steel, applications requiring high
temperature and corrosion resistance
Titanium and Its Alloys
 Abundant in nature, constituting  1% of earth's crust

(aluminum is  8%)
 Density of Ti is between aluminum and iron
 Importance has grown in recent decades due to its
aerospace applications where its light weight and
good strength‑to‑weight ratio are exploited
Properties of Titanium
 Coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low

among metals
 Stiffer and stronger than Al
 Retains good strength at elevated temperatures
 Pure Ti is reactive, which presents problems in
processing, especially in molten state
 At room temperature Ti forms a thin adherent oxide
coating (TiO2) that provides excellent corrosion
resistance
Applications of Titanium
 In the commercially pure state, Ti is used for

corrosion resistant components, such as marine
components and prosthetic implants
 Titanium alloys are used as high strength
components at temperatures ranging up to above
550C (1000F), especially where its excellent
strength‑to‑weight ratio is exploited
 Alloying elements used with titanium include
aluminum, manganese, tin, and vanadium
Zinc and Its Alloys
 Low melting point makes it attractive as a casting

metal, especially die casting
 Also provides corrosion protection when coated onto
steel or iron
 The term galvanized steel refers to steel coated
with zinc
 Widely used as alloy with copper (brass)
Superalloys
 High‑performance alloys designed to meet

demanding requirements for strength and resistance
to surface degradation at high service temperatures
 Many superalloys contain substantial amounts of
three or more metals, rather than consisting of one
base metal plus alloying elements
 Commercially important because they are very
expensive
 Technologically important because of their unique
properties
Why Superalloys are Important
 Room temperature strength properties are good but

not outstanding
 High temperature performance is excellent - tensile
strength, hot hardness, creep resistance, and
corrosion resistance at very elevated temperatures
 Operating temperatures often ~ 1100C (2000F)
 Applications: gas turbines ‑ jet and rocket engines,
steam turbines, and nuclear power plants (systems
that operate more efficiently at high temperatures)
Three Groups of Superalloys
1. Iron‑based alloys ‑ in some cases iron is less than 50%

of total composition
 Alloyed with Ni, Cr, Co
2. Nickel‑based alloys ‑ better high temperature strength
than alloy steels
 Alloyed with Cr, Co, Fe, Mo, Ti
3. Cobalt‑based alloys ‑  40% Co and  20% chromium
 Alloyed with Ni, Mo, and W
 Virtually all superalloys strengthen by precipitation
hardening
Ceramics
 Defined as an inorganic compound consisting of a metal

(or semi‑metal) and one or more nonmetals
 Important examples:
 Silica - silicon dioxide (SiO2), the main ingredient
in most glass products
 Alumina - aluminum oxide (Al2O3), used in various
applications from abrasives to artificial bones
 More complex compounds such as hydrous
aluminum silicate (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the main
ingredient in most clay products
Properties of Ceramic Materials
 High hardness, electrical and thermal insulating,

chemical stability, and high melting temperatures
 Brittle, virtually no ductility - can cause problems in
both processing and performance of ceramic
products
 Some ceramics are translucent, window glass (based
on silica) being the clearest example
Three Basic Categories
of Ceramics
1. Traditional ceramics ‑ clay products such as
pottery, bricks, common abrasives, and cement
2. New ceramics ‑ more recently developed
ceramics based on oxides, carbides, etc., with
better mechanical or physical properties than
traditional ceramics
3. Glasses ‑ based primarily on silica and
distinguished by their noncrystalline structure
Traditional Ceramics
 Based on mineral silicates, silica, and mineral oxides

found in nature
 Primary products are fired clay (pottery, tableware,
brick, and tile), cement, and natural abrasives such
as alumina
 Products and the processes to make them date back
thousands of years
 Glass is also a silicate ceramic material and is
sometimes included among traditional ceramics
Raw Materials for
Traditional Ceramics
 Mineral silicates, such as clays and silica, are among
the most abundant substances in nature and are the
principal raw materials for traditional ceramics
 Another important raw material for traditional
ceramics is alumina
 These solid crystalline compounds have been formed
and mixed in the earth’s crust over billions of years
by complex geological processes
Clay as a Ceramic Raw Material
 Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum

silicate
 Mostly based on kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
 Mixed with water, clay becomes a plastic substance
that is formable and moldable
 When heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature
(firing), clay fuses into a dense, strong material
 Thus, clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and
then fired to obtain the final hard product
Silica as a Ceramic Raw Material
 Available naturally in various forms, most important is

quartz
 Main source of quartz is sandstone
 Low cost
 Hard and chemically stable
 Principal component in glass, and an important
ingredient in other ceramic products including
whiteware, refractories, and abrasives
Alumina as a Ceramic Raw
Material
 Bauxite - most alumina is processed from this
mineral, which is an impure mixture of hydrous
aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide plus similar
compounds of iron or manganese
 Bauxite is also the principal source of aluminum
 Corundum - a more pure but less common form of
Al2O3, which contains alumina in massive amounts
 Alumina ceramic is used as an abrasive in grinding
wheels and as a refractory brick in furnaces
Traditional Ceramic Products
 Pottery and Tableware

 Brick and tile
 Refractories
 Abrasives
New Ceramics
 Ceramic materials developed synthetically over the

last several decades
 Also refers to improvements in processing
techniques that provide greater control over
structures and properties of ceramic materials
 New ceramics are based on compounds other
than variations of aluminum silicate
 New ceramics are usually simpler chemically than
traditional ceramics; for example, oxides, carbides,
nitrides, and borides
Oxide Ceramics
 Most important oxide ceramic is alumina Al2O3

 Although included among traditional ceramics, alumina
is also produced synthetically from bauxite
 Through control of particle size and impurities,
refinements in processing methods, and blending with
small amounts of other ceramic ingredients, strength
and toughness of alumina are improved substantially
compared to its natural counterpart
 Alumina also has good hot hardness, low thermal
conductivity, and good corrosion resistance
Products of Oxide Ceramics
 Abrasives (grinding wheel grit)

 Bioceramics (artificial bones and teeth)
 Electrical insulators and electronic components
 Refractory brick
 Cutting tool inserts
 Spark plug barrels
 Engineering components
 Alumina
ceramic
components
(photo
courtesy of
Insaco Inc.)
Carbide Ceramics
 Includes silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC),

titanium carbide (TiC), tantalum carbide (TaC), and
chromium carbide (Cr3C2)
 Production of SiC dates from a century ago, and it is
generally included among traditional ceramics
 WC, TiC, and TaC are hard and wear resistant and are
used in applications such as cutting tools
 WC, TiC, and TaC must be combined with a metallic
binder such as cobalt or nickel in order to fabricate a
useful solid product
Nitrides
 Important nitride ceramics are silicon nitride (Si3N4),

boron nitride (BN), and titanium nitride (TiN)
 Properties: hard, brittle, high melting temperatures,
usually electrically insulating, TiN being an exception
 Applications:
 Silicon nitride: components for gas turbines,
rocket engines, and melting crucibles
 Boron nitride and titanium nitride: cutting tool
materials and coatings
Glass
 A state of matter as well as a type of ceramic

 As a state of matter, glass refers to an amorphous
(noncrystalline) structure of a solid material
 The glassy state occurs when insufficient
time is allowed during cooling from the molten
state to form a crystalline structure
 As a type of ceramic, glass is an inorganic,
nonmetallic compound (or mixture of compounds)
that cools to a rigid condition without crystallizing
Why So Much SiO2 in Glass?
 Because SiO2 is the best glass former

 Silica is the main component in glass products,
usually comprising 50% to 75% of total
chemistry
 It naturally transforms into a glassy state upon
cooling from the liquid, whereas most ceramics
crystallize upon solidification
Other Ingredients in Glass
 Sodium oxide (Na2O)

 Calcium oxide (CaO)
 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
 Magnesium oxide (MgO)
 Potassium oxide (K2O)
 Lead oxide (PbO)
 Boron oxide (B2O3)
Functions of
Other Ingredients in Glass
 Act as flux (promoting fusion) during heating

 Increase fluidity in molten glass for processing
 Improve chemical resistance against attack by
acids, basic substances, or water
 Add color
 Alter index of refraction for optics
Glass Products
 Window glass
 Containers – cups, jars, bottles
 Light bulbs
 Laboratory glassware – flasks, beakers, glass tubing
 Glass fibers – insulation, fiber optics
 Optical glasses - lenses
Glass‑Ceramics
 A ceramic material produced by conversion of glass

into a polycrystalline structure through heat treatment
 Proportion of crystalline phase range = 90% to
98%, remainder vitreous material
 Grain size significantly smaller than conventional
ceramics, which makes glass‑ceramics much
stronger than the glasses from which they’re made
 Due to crystal structure, glass‑ceramics are opaque
(usually grey or white), not clear
Processing of Glass Ceramics
 Heating and forming techniques used in glassworking

create product shape
 Product is cooled and then reheated to cause a
dense network of crystal nuclei to form throughout
 Nucleation results from small amounts of
nucleating agents, such as TiO2, P2O5, and ZrO2
 Once nucleation is started, heat treatment is
continued at a higher temperature to cause
growth of crystalline phases
Advantages of Glass‑Ceramics
 Efficiency of processing in the glassy state

 Close dimensional control over final shape
 Good mechanical and physical properties
 High strength (stronger than glass)
 Absence of porosity; low thermal expansion
 High resistance to thermal shock
Applications of Glass-Ceramics
 Cooking ware (e.g., Corning ware)

 Heat exchangers
 Missile radomes
Polymers
 Defined as a compound consisting of long‑chain

molecules, each molecule made up of repeating units
connected together
 There may be thousands, even millions of units in
a single polymer molecule
 The word polymer is derived from the Greek words
poly, meaning many, and meros (reduced to mer),
meaning part
 Most polymers are based on carbon and are
therefore considered organic chemicals
Types of Polymers
 Polymers can be separated into plastics and rubbers

 As engineering materials, it is appropriate to divide
them into the following three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers
2. Thermosetting polymers
3. Elastomers
where (1) and (2) are plastics and (3) are rubbers
Thermoplastic Polymers -
Thermoplastics
 Solid materials at room temperature but viscous
liquids when heated to temperatures of only a few
hundred degrees
 This characteristic allows them to be easily and
economically shaped into products
 They can be subjected to heating and cooling
cycles repeatedly without significant degradation
 Symbolized by TP
Thermosetting Polymers -
Thermosets
 Cannot tolerate repeated heating cycles as
thermoplastics can
 When initially heated, they soften and flow for
molding
 Elevated temperatures also produce a chemical
reaction that hardens the material into an infusible
solid
 If reheated, thermosets degrade and char rather
than soften
 Symbolized by TS
Elastomers (Rubbers)
 Polymers that exhibit extreme elastic extensibility

when subjected to relatively low mechanical stress
 Some elastomers can be stretched by a factor of
10 and yet completely recover to their original
shape
 Although their properties are quite different from
thermosets, they share a similar molecular
structure that is different from the thermoplastics
Market Shares
 Thermoplastics are commercially the most important

of the three types
 About 70% of the tonnage of all synthetic
polymers produced
 Thermosets and elastomers share the remaining
30% about evenly, with a slight edge for the former
 On a volumetric basis, current annual usage of
polymers exceeds that of metals
Reasons Why Polymers are
Important
 Plastics can be molded into intricate part shapes,
usually with no further processing
 Very compatible with net shape processing
 On a volumetric basis, polymers:
 Are cost competitive with metals
 Generally require less energy to produce than
metals
 Certain plastics are transparent, which makes them
competitive with glass in some applications
Synthesis of Polymers
 Nearly all polymers used in engineering are synthetic

 They are made by chemical processing
 Polymers are synthesized by joining many small
molecules together into very large molecules, called
macromolecules, that possess a chain‑like structure
 The small units, called monomers, are generally
simple unsaturated organic molecules such as
ethylene C2H4
Polyethylene
 Synthesis of polyethylene from ethylene monomers:

(1) n ethylene monomers, (2a) polyethylene of chain
length n; (2b) concise notation for depicting polymer
structure of chain length n
Thermoplastic Polymers (TP)
 Thermoplastic polymers can be heated from solid state

to viscous liquid and then cooled back down to solid
 Heating and cooling can be repeated many times
without degrading the polymer
 Reason: TP polymers consist of linear and/or
branched macromolecules that do not cross‑link
 Thermosets and elastomers change chemically when
heated, which cross‑links their molecules and
permanently cures these polymers
Mechanical Properties of
Thermoplastics
 Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)
 E is much lower than metals and ceramics
 Low tensile strength
 TS is about 10% of metal
 Much lower hardness than metals or ceramics
 Greater ductility on average
 Tremendous range of values, from 1% elongation
for polystyrene to 500% or more for polypropylene
Thermosetting Polymers (TS)
 TS polymers are distinguished by their highly

cross‑linked three‑dimensional, covalently‑bonded
structure
 Chemical reactions associated with cross‑linking are
called curing or setting
 In effect, formed part (e.g., pot handle, electrical
switch cover, etc.) becomes a large macromolecule
 Always amorphous and exhibits no glass transition
temperature
General Properties of
Thermosets
 Rigid - modulus of elasticity is two to three times

greater than thermoplastics
 Brittle, virtually no ductility
 Less soluble in common solvents than thermoplastics
 Capable of higher service temperatures than
thermoplastics
 Cannot be remelted ‑ instead they degrade or burn
Cross-Linking (Curing) of
TS Polymers
 Three categories:
1. Temperature‑activated systems – curing caused by
heating
2. Catalyst‑activated systems – curing by small
amounts of a catalyst added to the liquid polymer
3. Mixing‑activated systems – two starting ingredients
react to cause curing
 Curing is done at the fabrication plants that make the
parts rather than the supplier of the starting materials
Elastomers
 Polymers capable of large elastic deformation when

subjected to relatively low stresses
 Some can be extended 500% or more and still
return to their original shape
 Two categories:
1. Natural rubber - derived from biological plants
2. Synthetic polymers - produced by
polymerization processes like those used for
TP and TS polymers
Vulcanization
 The term for curing (cross‑linking) in the context of

natural rubber (and certain synthetic rubbers)
 Typical cross‑linking in rubber is one to ten links per
hundred carbon atoms in the linear polymer chain,
depending on degree of stiffness desired
 Considerable less than cross‑linking in thermosets
Stiffness of Rubber
 Increase in stiffness as a function of strain for three

grades of rubber: natural rubber, vulcanized rubber,
and hard rubber
Natural Rubber (NR)
 NR = polyisoprene, a high molecular‑weight polymer

of isoprene (C5H8)
 Derived from latex, a milky substance produced by
various plants, most important of which is the
rubber tree that grows in tropical climates
 Latex is a water emulsion of polyisoprene (about
1/3 by weight), plus various other ingredients
 Rubber is extracted from latex by various methods
that remove the water
Natural Rubber Products
 Largest single market for NR is automotive tires

 Other products: shoe soles, bushings, seals, and
shock absorbing components
 In tires, carbon black is an important additive
 It reinforces the rubber, serving to increase tensile
strength and resistance to tear and abrasion
 Other additives: clay, kaolin, silica, talc, and calcium
carbonate, as well as chemicals that accelerate and
promote vulcanization
Synthetic Rubbers
 Development of synthetic rubbers was motivated

largely by world wars when NR was difficult to obtain
 Tonnage of synthetic rubbers is now more than three
times that of NR
 Most important synthetic rubber is styrene‑butadiene
rubber (SBR), a copolymer of butadiene (C4H6) and
styrene (C8H8)
 As with most other polymers, the main raw material for
synthetic rubbers is petroleum
Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE)
 Thermoplastic that behaves like an elastomer

 Elastomeric properties not from chemical cross‑links,
but from physical connections between soft and hard
phases in the material
 Cannot match conventional elastomers in elevated
temperature strength and creep resistance
 Products: footwear; rubber bands; extruded tubing,
wire coating; molded automotive parts, but no tires
Composite Material Defined
 A materials system composed of two or more distinct

phases whose combination produces aggregate
properties different from those of its constituents
 Examples:
 Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)
 Plastic molding compounds with fillers
 Rubber mixed with carbon black
 Wood (a natural composite as distinguished from
a synthesized composite)
Why Composites are Important
 Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in

weight
 Strength‑to‑weight and stiffness‑to‑weight ratios are
several times greater than steel or aluminum
 Fatigue properties are generally better than for common
engineering metals
 Toughness is often greater
 Possible to achieve combinations of properties not
attainable with metals, ceramics, or polymers alone
Disadvantages and Limitations
 Properties of many important composites are anisotropic
 May be an advantage or a disadvantage
 Many polymer‑based composites are subject to attack
by chemicals or solvents
 Just as the polymers themselves are susceptible
 Composite materials are generally expensive
 Manufacturing methods for shaping composite materials
are often slow and costly
Components in a Composite
Material
Most composite materials consist of two phases:

1. Primary phase - forms the matrix within which the
secondary phase is imbedded
2. Secondary phase - imbedded phase sometimes
referred to as a reinforcing agent, because it usually
strengthens the composite material
 The reinforcing phase may be in the form of
fibers, particles, or various other geometries
Classification of
Composite Materials
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) ‑ mixtures of

ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides
and other cermets
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) ‑ Al2O3 and SiC
imbedded with fibers to improve properties
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) ‑ polymer resins
imbedded with filler or reinforcing agent
 Examples: epoxy and polyester with fiber
reinforcement, and phenolic with powders
Functions of the Matrix Material
 Primary phase provides the bulk form of the part or

product made of the composite material
 Holds the imbedded phase in place, usually enclosing
and often concealing it
 When a load is applied, the matrix shares the load
with the secondary phase, in some cases deforming
so that the stress is essentially born by the
reinforcing agent
Reinforcing Phase
 Function is to reinforce the primary phase

 Reinforcing phase (imbedded in the matrix) is most
commonly one of the following shapes: fibers,
particles, or flakes
 Also, secondary phase can take the form of an
infiltrated phase in a skeletal or porous matrix
 Example: a powder metallurgy part infiltrated with
polymer
Fibers
 Filaments of reinforcing material, usually circular in

cross section
 Diameters from ~ 0.0025 mm to about 0.13 mm
 Filaments provide greatest opportunity for strength
enhancement of composites
 Filament form of most materials is significantly
stronger than the bulk form
Continuous Fibers vs.
Discontinuous Fibers
 Continuous fibers - very long; in theory, they offer a
continuous path by which a load can be carried by
the composite part
 Discontinuous fibers (chopped sections of continuous
fibers) - short lengths (L/D = roughly 100)
 Whiskers = discontinuous fibers of hair-like single
crystals with diameters down to about 0.001 mm
(0.00004 in) and very high strength
Metal Matrix Composites
(MMCs)
 Metal matrix reinforced by a second phase
 Reinforcing phases:
1. Particles of ceramic
 These MMCs are commonly called cermets
2. Fibers of various materials
 Other metals, ceramics, carbon, and boron
Cermets
 MMC with ceramic contained in a metallic matrix

 The ceramic often dominates the mixture,
sometimes up to 96% by volume
 Bonding can be enhanced by slight solubility
between phases at elevated temperatures used in
processing
 Cermets can be subdivided into
1. Cemented carbides – most common
2. Oxide‑based cermets – less common
Cemented Carbides
 One or more carbide compounds bonded in a

metallic matrix
 Common cemented carbides are based on tungsten
carbide (WC), titanium carbide (TiC), and chromium
carbide (Cr3C2)
 Tantalum carbide (TaC) and others are less
common
 Metallic binders: usually cobalt (Co) or nickel (Ni)
Applications of
Cemented Carbides
 Tungsten carbide cermets (Co binder)
 Cutting tools, wire drawing dies, rock drilling bits,
powder metal dies, indenters for hardness testers
 Titanium carbide cermets (Ni binder)
 Cutting tools; high temperature applications such as
gas‑turbine nozzle vanes
 Chromium carbide cermets (Ni binder)
 Gage blocks, valve liners, spray nozzles
Ceramic Matrix Composites
(CMCs)
 Ceramic primary phase imbedded with a secondary
phase, usually consisting of fibers
 Attractive properties of ceramics: high stiffness,
hardness, hot hardness, and compressive
strength; and relatively low density
 Weaknesses of ceramics: low toughness and bulk
tensile strength, susceptibility to thermal cracking
 CMCs represent an attempt to retain the desirable
properties of ceramics while compensating for
their weaknesses
Polymer Matrix Composites
(PMCs)
 Polymer primary phase in which a secondary phase
is imbedded as fibers, particles, or flakes
 Commercially, PMCs are more important than
MMCs or CMCs
 Examples:
 Most plastic molding compounds
 Rubber reinforced with carbon black
 Fiber‑reinforced polymers (FRPs)
Fiber‑Reinforced Polymers
(FRPs)
 PMC consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded with
high‑strength fibers
 Polymer matrix materials:
 Usually a thermosetting plastic such as
unsaturated polyester or epoxy
 Can also be thermoplastic, such as nylons
(polyamides), polycarbonate, polystyrene, and
polyvinylchloride
 Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber
products such as tires and conveyor belts
Fibers in PMCs
 Various forms: discontinuous (chopped), continuous,

or woven as a fabric
 Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon,
and Kevlar 49
 Less common fibers include boron, SiC, and Al2O3,
and steel
 Glass (in particular E‑glass) is the most common fiber
material in today's FRPs
 Its use to reinforce plastics dates from around
1920
Common FRP Structures
 Most widely used form of FRP is a laminar structure

 Made by stacking and bonding thin layers of fiber
and polymer until desired thickness is obtained
 By varying fiber orientation among layers, a
specified level of anisotropy in properties can be
achieved in the laminate
 Applications: boat hulls, aircraft wing and fuselage
sections, automobile and truck body panels
FRP Properties
 High strength‑to‑weight and modulus‑to‑weight ratios

 FRP weighs only about 1/5 as much as steel
 Yet strength and modulus are comparable in fiber
direction
 Good fatigue strength
 Good corrosion resistance, although polymers are
soluble in various chemicals
 Low thermal expansion for many FRPs
FRP Applications
 Aerospace – much of the structural weight of today’s

airplanes and helicopters consist of advanced FRPs
 Example: Boeing 787 Dreamliner
 Automotive – some body panels for cars and truck cabs
 Low-carbon sheet steel still widely used due to its low
cost and ease of processing
 Sports and recreation
 FRPs used for boat hulls since 1940s
 Fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf club shafts,
helmets, skis, bows and arrows
Other Polymer Matrix
Composites
 Other PMCs contain particles, flakes, and short fibers
 Called fillers when used in molding compounds
 Two categories:
1. Reinforcing fillers – used to strengthen or
otherwise improve mechanical properties
2. Extenders – used to increase bulk and reduce
cost per unit weight, with little or no effect on
mechanical properties

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CH 05

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ENGINEERING MATERIALS

1. Metals and Their Alloys

 High stiffness and strength ‑ can be alloyed for high

 Ferrous ‑ those based on iron

 Based on iron, one of the oldest metals known

 Binary phase diagram

 The phase at room temperature is alpha (), called

 An alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and 2.11%

 Carbon is the principal alloying element, with only

 Specified by a 4‑digit number system: 10XX, where

1. Low carbon steels - less than 0.20% C

 Iron‑carbon alloys containing additional alloying

 AISI‑SAE designation uses a 4‑digit number system:

 Highly alloyed steels designed for corrosion resistance

 In addition to corrosion resistance, stainless steels

 Classified according to the predominant phase present

 A class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for

 T, M High‑speed tool steels ‑ cutting tools

 Iron alloys containing from 2.1% to about 4% carbon

 Most important is gray cast iron

 Metal elements and alloys not based on iron

 Aluminum (Al) and magnesium (Mg) are light metals

 High electrical and thermal conductivity

Alloy group Wrought code Cast

 Lightest of the structural metals

 As a pure metal, magnesium is relative soft and lacks

 One of the oldest metals known to mankind

 In ancient times, copper was available in nature as a

 Strength and hardness of copper is relatively low; to

 Based on the Unified Numbering System for Metals and

 Similar to iron in some respects:

 Alloys of nickel are commercially important and are

 Abundant in nature, constituting  1% of earth's crust

 Coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low

 In the commercially pure state, Ti is used for

 Low melting point makes it attractive as a casting

 High‑performance alloys designed to meet

 Room temperature strength properties are good but

1. Iron‑based alloys ‑ in some cases iron is less than 50%

 Defined as an inorganic compound consisting of a metal

 High hardness, electrical and thermal insulating,

 Based on mineral silicates, silica, and mineral oxides

 Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum

 Available naturally in various forms, most important is

 Pottery and Tableware

 Ceramic materials developed synthetically over the

 Most important oxide ceramic is alumina Al2O3

 Abrasives (grinding wheel grit)

 Includes silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC),

 Important nitride ceramics are silicon nitride (Si3N4),

 A state of matter as well as a type of ceramic

 Because SiO2 is the best glass former

 Sodium oxide (Na2O)

 Act as flux (promoting fusion) during heating

 A ceramic material produced by conversion of glass

 Heating and forming techniques used in glassworking

 Efficiency of processing in the glassy state

 Cooking ware (e.g., Corning ware)

 Defined as a compound consisting of long‑chain

 Polymers can be separated into plastics and rubbers

 Polymers that exhibit extreme elastic extensibility

 Thermoplastics are commercially the most important

 Nearly all polymers used in engineering are synthetic