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CH 02
CH 02
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Importance of Materials in
Manufacturing
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Element Groupings
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Periodic Table
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Atomic Structure and the
Elements
The basic structural unit of matter is the atom
Each atom is composed of a positively charged
nucleus, surrounded by a sufficient number of
negatively charged electrons so the charges are
balanced
More than 100 elements, and they are the
chemical building blocks of all matter
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Simple Model of Atomic
Structure for Several Atoms
(a) Hydrogen, (b) helium, (c) fluorine, (d) neon, and
(e) sodium
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Bonding between Atoms and
Molecules
Atoms are held together in molecules by various
types of bonds
1. Primary bonds - generally associated with
formation of molecules
2. Secondary bonds - generally associated with
attraction between molecules
Primary bonds are much stronger than secondary
bonds
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Primary Bonds
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Ionic Bonding
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Covalent Bonding
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Two Examples of
Covalent Bonding
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Metallic Bonding
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Secondary Bonds
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Dipole Forces
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
London Forces
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Hydrogen Bonding
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Macroscopic Structures of Matter
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Crystalline Structure
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Three Crystal Structures in
Metals
(a) Body-centered cubic, (b) face-centered cubic, and
(c) hexagonal close-packed
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Crystal Structures for Common
Metals
Room temperature crystal structures for some of the
common metals:
Body‑centered cubic (BCC)
Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
Face‑centered cubic (FCC)
Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver, Nickel
Hexagonal close‑packed (HCP)
Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Imperfections (Defects) in
Crystals
Imperfections often arise due to inability of solidifying
material to continue replication of unit cell, e.g., grain
boundaries in metals
Imperfections can also be introduced purposely; e.g.,
addition of alloying ingredient in metal
Types of defects: (1) point defects, (2) line defects, (3)
surface defects
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Point Defects
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Edge Dislocation
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Screw Dislocation
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Surface Defects
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Elastic Strain
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Slip on a Macroscopic Scale
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Twinning
A second mechanism
of plastic deformation
in which atoms on one
side of a plane (the
twinning plane) are
shifted to form a mirror
image of the other side
Before
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Twinning
After plastic
deformation
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Polycrystalline Nature of Metals
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Grains and Grain Boundaries
in Metals
How do polycrystalline structures form?
As a volume of metal cools from the molten state and
begins to solidify, individual crystals nucleate at
random positions and orientations throughout the
liquid
These crystals grow and finally interfere with each
other, forming at their interface a surface defect ‑ a
grain boundary, which is a transition zone, perhaps
only a few atoms thick
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Noncrystalline (Amorphous)
Structures
Water and air have noncrystalline structures
A metal loses its crystalline structure when melted
Some engineering materials have noncrystalline forms
in their solid state
Glass
Many plastics
Rubber
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Features of Noncrystalline
Structures
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Crystalline versus Noncrystalline
Structures of Materials
Difference in structure between: (a) crystalline and
(b) noncrystalline materials
Crystal structure is regular, repeating; noncrystalline
structure is less tightly packed and random
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Volumetric Effects
Characteristic change
in volume for a pure
metal (a crystalline
structure), compared
to same volumetric
changes in glass (a
noncrystalline
structure)
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Summary: Characteristics of
Metals
Crystalline structures in the solid state, almost
without exception
BCC, FCC, or HCP unit cells
Atoms held together by metallic bonding
Properties: high strength and hardness, high
electrical and thermal conductivity
FCC metals are generally ductile
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Summary: Characteristics of
Ceramics
Most ceramics have crystalline structures, while glass
(SiO2) is amorphous
Molecules characterized by ionic or covalent bonding,
or both
Properties: high hardness and stiffness, electrically
insulating, refractory, and chemically inert
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Summary: Characteristics of
Polymers
Many repeating mers in molecule held together by
covalent bonding
Polymers usually carbon plus one or more other
elements: H, N, O, and Cl
Amorphous (glassy) structure or mixture of amorphous
and crystalline
Properties: low density, high electrical resistivity, low
thermal conductivity, strength and stiffness vary widely
©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e