Some terms

• General score = Mean of each dimension (such as Individual Reason

(IR), Social Measure (SR))
• Item score=raw score of each item (such as IR1, IR2-------)
 procedure
• Download the dataset from the E-moodle, and the report temperate as
well
• Calculate the general score of Social Measure (SM) for further
analysis
• Describe the frequency and percentage of Gender, income group, and
educational level, respectively, by using describe  frequency
function
• Perform the Describe function to calculate the Mean and Sd of each
item of Social Reasons (SR), and then rank them by comparing the
Mean score of each item of SR;
Calculate the general score of Social Measure (SM) for further
analysis

• Run in SPSS
• Transform Compute variable Typing/naming the name of target
variable =Social_Measure(SM1+SM2+-----+SM9)/9
Describe the frequency and percentage of Gender, income group, and
educational level, respectively, by using describe  frequency function

• Run in SPSS
• Analysis Descriptive Statistics Frequency  select “gender,
income group & educational level” Charts Pie Chart
 Select correct data from SPSS result
Correct data/result

gender
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid 男 145 48.3 48.3 48.3

女 155 51.7 51.7 100.0

Total 300 100.0 100.0

Integrate all the correct data into one table
Table 1:
Demographic characteristics of participants (N=300)
Frequency Percentage(%)
Gender
Male 145 48.3
Female 155 51.7
Age group 15-19yrs 216 41.7
20-24yrs 146 28.2
25-29yrs 88 17.0
30-34yrs 68 13.1
Education Primary and below level 1 .3
level Lower secondary 19 6.3
Upper secondary 134 44.7
Post-secondary (sub-degree and upper) 146 48.7
Employment
In School 272 52.5
status
Employment 193 37.3
Career Preparation Training 1 .2
Housewife 12 2.3
Self-employed 17 3.3
Other 4 .8
Income No imcome 208 40.2
Below
沒有收入 HK $8,000 208 40.2 112 21.6
HK $8,000- HK $9,999
港幣8,000以下 30 5.8
112 21.6
HK $10,000- HK $11,999 40 7.7
港幣8,000-9,999
HK $12,000 or upper30 5.8
128 24.7
港幣10,000-
40 7.7
11,999
港幣12,000或以
128 24.7
Perform the Describe function to calculate the Mean and Sd of each item of Social
Reasons (SR), and then rank them by comparing the Mean score of each item of SR;

• Run in SPSS
• Analysis Descriptive Statistics  Descriptive each items of SR
(SR1, SR2,SR3—SR8) present in terms of “Mean and Sd”
Select correct data from SPSS result
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Rank
SR1 300 1 4 2.70 .770
Ranking by comparing the value
SR2 299 1 4 2.55 .724
of each Mean, if means were the
SR3 292 1 4 2.56 .631 same, the rank of course should
2 be same
SR4 299 1 4 2.88 .667

SR5 297 1 4 2.52 .658 7

7
SR6 296 1 4 2.52 .713

SR7 300 1 4 2.84 .696 3

SR8 298 1 4 3.15 .730 1
Valid N (listwise) 286
Exercise
• Conduct the mean comparison to explore whether there has gender
difference in IR, and SR (independent sample t-test)
1. Define the IV and DV respectively
2. Perform the mean comparison
• Conduct the mean comparison to explore which item of social mesures
exist gender difference at .05 level
1. Define the IV and DV respectively
2. Perform the mean comparison
3. Report which item(s) have the gender difference at .05 level
Logical mindset in mean comparison
• Step1: Homogeneity test 
• Step2: Mean Comparison by t-test (for two groups comparison) or F-
test (one way ANOVA, for more than two groups comparison)
Independent sample t-test (two groups comprison)
if sig>.05 equal variance assumed (p>.05)select the first line data
(t & Sig)

Homogeneity -test
if sig<.05 equal variance Not assumed (p<.05)select the Second
line data (t & Sig)

If sig >.05, no significant gender difference exists in IR at .05 level

Independent
(t=.492, p>.05)
sample t-test

If sig <.05, significant gender difference exists at .05 level (t=-2.97,

From data to concept/ p<.05)
result interpretation

If sig<.05, that means significant gender difference exists in IR at .05 level (t=-2.97,
Finalize the result in the p<.05), that indicates boys significantly more agree on the Individual Reasons can
report contribute to poverty than girls.
Independent sample t-test
• Conduct the mean comparison to explore whether there has gender
difference in IR, and SR (independent sample t-test)
1. Define the IV and DV respectively
2. IV=gender = grouping variable in SPSS define group1 &group 2
3. DV=Test variable in SPSSselect “IR, SR ” (general score not item
score)
4. Run in SPSS
5. AnalysisCompare MeanIndependent sample t-testgrouping
variable (define group1 &group 2) Test variable in SPSS(select “IR,
SR ” )ok
 Result in SPSS
Homogeneity Test
Group Statistics If sig>.05, no significant difference  equal
gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean variance assumed
IR 男-1 144 2.7413 .42064 .03505 If sig<.05, significant difference at .05 level
女-2 154 2.7175 .41293 .03327 equal variance NOT assumed

Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference

IR Equal variances assumed .571 .451>.05 .492 296 .623>.05 .02379
Equal variances not assumed .492 293.834 .623 .02379

Step1: to test the homogeneity if sig>.05 equal variance assumed (p>.05)select the first line data (t & Sig)

Step2: select t &sigt=.492, since sig >.05, no significant gender difference exists in IR (t=.492, p>.05)
Conduct the mean comparison to identify which item of Social
Measures can significantly Gender difference at .05 level
which may contribute to solving the poverty issue in
(independent sample t-test)

• IV-gender (group 1 & group 2)

• DV-9 items of SM
(DV1=SM1, DV2=SM2-----DV9=SM9)
1. Run in SPSS
2. Analysis Compare Mean  Independent sample t-test 
grouping variable (define group1 &group 2) Test variable in
SPSS(select all the items of SM (SM1---SM9))ok
 Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances Sig (2-tailed result decided whether we t-test for Equality o

need to add the * to t value )

F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference

SM1 Equal variances assumed .385 .535 .508 297 .612 .037

Equal variances not assumed .507 293.447 .612 .037

SM2 Equal variances assumed 1.331 .250 .611 295 .542 .053

Equal variances not assumed .609 289.971 .543 .053

SM3 Equal variances assumed 18.038 .000 -2.209 297 .028 -.184

Equal variances not assumed sig<.05 -2.187 265.632 .030 -.184

SM4 Equal variances assumed .454 .501 .101 296 .920 .010

Equal variances not assumed .101 289.766 .920 .010

SM5 Equal variances assumed 3.994 .047 -.050 294 .960 -.004

Equal variances not assumed -.050 278.637 .960 -.004

SM6 Equal variances assumed 2.505 .115 1.108 296 .269 .068

Equal variances not assumed 1.106 290.984 .270 .068

SM7 Equal variances assumed .806 .370 .704 296 .482 .037

Equal variances not assumed .704 292.943 .482 .037

SM8 Equal variances assumed .098 .755 -1.119 298 .264 -.073

Equal variances not assumed -1.117 293.213 .265 -.073

SM9 Equal variances assumed 12.428 .000 -2.649 298 .008 -.183

Equal variances not assumed sig<.05 -2.628 271.475 .009 -.183

 Scale Gender Mean SD t-test

SM1 male 3.08 .651 .51

female 3.05 .619
SM2 male 2.86 .773 .61
female 2.80 .710
SM3 male 2.67 .818 -2.19*
female 2.86 .618
SM4 male 2.75 .865 .10
female 2.74 .799
SM5 male 2.64 .686 -.05
female 2.65 .579
SM6 male 3.21 .542 1.11
female 3.14 .515
SM7 male 3.14 .453 .70
female 3.10 .444
SM8 male 3.15 .544 1.12
female 2.87 .669
SM9 male 2.87 .669 -2.63*

*-significant different at .05 level

Conduct the mean comparison to identify which item of Social
Reasons can significantly Gender difference at .05 level which
may contribute to solving the poverty issue in (independent
sample t-test)

• IV-gender (group 1 & group 2)

• DV-9 items of SR/SF
(DV1=SF1, DV2=SF2-----DV8=SF8)
1. Run in SPSS
2. Analysis Compare Mean  Independent sample t-test 
grouping variable (define group1 &group 2) Test variable in
SPSS(select all the items of SM (SF1---SF8)ok
Final interpretation in the report
• Through t-test, result shows that only SM3 & SM9 have significant
gender difference at .05 level (p<.05), that is , for SM3, girls more
agree on SM3 (full name) can contribute to solving the poverty issues
than Boys (t=-2.19, Mean boy:girl=2.67vs. 2.86, Sd=.82 vs. .62)
• for SM9, girls more agree on SM9 (full name) can contribute to
solving the poverty issues than Boys (t=-2.62, Mean boy:girl=2.67vs.
2.86, Sd=.82 vs. .62)
Exercise- continous
• To conduct ANOVA to compare different items of social Reason to see
whether they have significant different at .05 level among different
educational levels groups
1. Define the IV and DV
IV-educational level
DV-8 items of SR ()
DV1=SR1, DV2=SR2, ----------DV8=SR8
2. Perform the ANOVA in SPSS
Run in SPSS (One Way ANOVA—F-test)
• Analysis Compare Mean One Way ANOVA
• IV=Factor (in SPSS)put in “educational level”
• DV=Dependent List  put in “8 items of SR “ok
• Result of F-test
 ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

SR1 Between Groups 1.664 3 .555 .934 .424

Within Groups 175.732 296 .594

Total 177.397 299

SR2 Between Groups 1.600 3 .533 1.018 .385

Since sig<.05, so SR4 has significant
Within Groups 154.540 295 .524
difference among different cohorts with
Total 156.140 298
different educational levels (F=2.69,p<.05)
SR3 Between Groups 1.059 3 .353 .885 .449

Within Groups 114.951 288 .399

Total 116.010 291

SR4 Between Groups 3.532 3 1.177 2.694 * .046

Within Groups 128.890 295 .437

Total 132.421 298

SR5 Between Groups 2.535 3 .845 1.971 .118

Within Groups 125.573 293 .429

Total 128.108 296

SR6 Between Groups 2.334 3 .778 1.540 .204

Within Groups 147.544 292 .505

Total 149.878 295

SR7 Between Groups 1.386 3 .462 .952 .416

Within Groups 143.610 296 .485

Total 144.997 299

SR8 Between Groups .131 3 .044 .081 .970

Within Groups 158.074 294 .538

 Descriptives
SR4

95% Confidence Interval for Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

小學程度 1 3.00 . . . . 3 3

初中程度（中一至中三） 19 2.74 .733 .168 2.38 3.09 1 4

高中程度（中四至中七） 133 2.77 .598 .052 2.67 2.88 1 4

大專或以上程度 146 2.99 .705 .058 2.87 3.10 1 4

Total 299 2.88 .667 .039 2.80 2.95 1 4

 Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.

SR4 Based on Mean .399 2 295 .671 >.05, equal variance assumedPost-HOC LSD
Based on Median .773 2 295 .463

Based on Median and with adjusted df .773 2 291.951 .463

Step 2
Based on trimmed mean .398 2 295 .672

ANOVA
SR4

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 3.532 3 1.177 2.694 .046

Within Groups 128.890 295 .437

Total 132.421 298 Step 1

 Descriptives
SR4

95% Confidence Interval for Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

初中程度（中一至中三） 19 2.74 .733 .168 2.38 3.09 1 4

高中程度（中四至中七） 133 2.77 .598 .052 2.67 2.88 1 4

大專或以上程度 146 2.99 .705 .058 2.87 3.10 1 4

Total 298 2.88 .668 .039 2.80 2.95 1 4

 Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: SR4

LSD

95% Confidence Interval

(I) EDU_LEVEL (J) EDU_LEVEL Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound

初中程度（中一至中三） 高中程度（中四至中七） -.038 .162 .817 -.36 .28

大專或以上程度 -.249 .161 .123 -.57 .07

高中程度（中四至中七） 初中程度（中一至中三） .038 .162 .817 -.28 .36

大專或以上程度 -.212* .079 .008 -.37 -.06

大專或以上程度 初中程度（中一至中三） .249 .161 .123 -.07 .57

高中程度（中四至中七） .212* .079 .008 .06 .37

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Mean Sd F-test
High school 2.77 .60 2.69*
Post-secondary 2.99 .71
education
Exercise- continuous
• To conduct ANOVA to compare different items of social Reason to see whether
they have significant different at .05 level among different income groups
1. Define the IV and DV
IV-income groups
DV-8 items of SR
DV1=SR1, DV2=SR2, ----------DV8=SR8
2. Perform the ANOVA in SPSS
3. According to the result of F-test (ANOVA, with sig value)select the
variables (items) which have Signiant different at .05 level (p<.05)
4. Such as SR4 &
 ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Since sig<.05, so SR2 has significant
SR1 Between Groups 4.006 4 1.002 1.704 .149 difference among different cohorts
Within Groups 173.390 295 .588 with different income (F=4.67,p<.05)
Total 177.397 299

SR2 Between Groups 9.324 4 2.331 *

4.668 .001

Within Groups 146.816 294 .499

Total 156.140 298

SR3 Between Groups 3.256 4 .814 2.072 .085

Within Groups 112.754 287 .393

Total 116.010 291 Since sig<.05, so SR5 has significant

SR4 Between Groups 2.122 4 .531 1.197 .312 difference among different cohorts
Within Groups 130.299 294 .443 with different income
Total 132.421 298 (F=3.63,p<.05)
SR5 Between Groups 6.071 4 1.518 3.631
* .007

Within Groups 122.037 292 .418

Total 128.108 296

SR6 Between Groups 4.618 4 1.155 2.313 .058

Within Groups 145.260 291 .499

Total 149.878 295

SR7 Between Groups 4.400 4 1.100 2.308 .058

Within Groups 140.597 295 .477

Total 144.997 299

SR8 Between Groups 1.709 4 .427 .800 .526

Within Groups 156.496 293 .534

 Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.

SR2 Based on Mean .623 4 294 .646

>.05post-hoc--LSD
Based on Median 1.082 4 294 .365

Based on Median and with adjusted 1.082 4 290.801 .365

df

Based on trimmed mean .709 4 294 .586

SR5 Based on Mean 2.544 4 292 .040 <.05post-hoc—T2

Based on Median 1.234 4 292 .297

Based on Median and with adjusted 1.234 4 275.173 .297

df

Based on trimmed mean 2.460 4 292 .046

 Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: SR2

LSD

95% Confidence Interval

(I) income (J) income Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound

沒有收入 港幣8,000以下 .139 .112 .217 -.08 .36

港幣8,000-9,999 -.336 .188 .075 -.71 .03

港幣10,000-11,999 .264 .155 .090 -.04 .57

港幣12,000或以上 .339* .103 .001 .14 .54

港幣8,000以下 沒有收入 -.139 .112 .217 -.36 .08

港幣8,000-9,999 -.475* .199 .018 -.87 -.08

港幣10,000-11,999 .125 .169 .458 -.21 .46

港幣12,000或以上 .201 .122 .102 -.04 .44

港幣8,000-9,999 沒有收入 .336 .188 .075 -.03 .71

港幣8,000以下 .475* .199 .018 .08 .87

港幣10,000-11,999 .600* .226 .008 .15 1.05

港幣12,000或以上 .675* .194 .001 .29 1.06

港幣10,000-11,999 沒有收入 -.264 .155 .090 -.57 .04

港幣8,000以下 -.125 .169 .458 -.46 .21

港幣8,000-9,999 -.600* .226 .008 -1.05 -.15

港幣12,000或以上 .075 .163 .644 -.24 .40

港幣12,000或以上 沒有收入 -.339* .103 .001 -.54 -.14

港幣8,000以下 -.201 .122 .102 -.44 .04

港幣8,000-9,999 -.675* .194 .001 -1.06 -.29

 SR2

Income groups SD
Mean F-test
No income 2.66 .711 4.67*
>12000 2.32 .658
8,000-9,999 3.00 .816
<8000 2.53 .728
港幣10,000-11,999 2.40 .707
港幣12,000或以上 2.32 .658
*-significant different at .05 level
 Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: SR5

Tamhane

95% Confidence Interval

(I) income (J) income Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound

沒有收入 港幣8,000以下 .357* .096 .003 .08 .63

港幣8,000-9,999 -.013 .137 1.000 -.44 .41

港幣10,000-11,999 -.084 .157 1.000 -.56 .39

港幣12,000或以上 .099 .100 .980 -.19 .38

港幣8,000以下 沒有收入 -.357* .096 .003 -.63 -.08

港幣8,000-9,999 -.371 .148 .167 -.82 .08

港幣10,000-11,999 -.441 .166 .112 -.94 .06

港幣12,000或以上 -.259 .114 .227 -.58 .07

港幣8,000-9,999 沒有收入 .013 .137 1.000 -.41 .44

港幣8,000以下 .371 .148 .167 -.08 .82

港幣10,000-11,999 -.071 .193 1.000 -.64 .50

港幣12,000或以上 .112 .150 .998 -.34 .57

港幣10,000-11,999 沒有收入 .084 .157 1.000 -.39 .56

港幣8,000以下 .441 .166 .112 -.06 .94

港幣8,000-9,999 .071 .193 1.000 -.50 .64

港幣12,000或以上 .183 .168 .965 -.32 .68

港幣12,000或以上 沒有收入 -.099 .100 .980 -.38 .19

港幣8,000以下 .259 .114 .227 -.07 .58

港幣8,000-9,999 -.112 .150 .998 -.57 .34

SR5 Mean Sd F-test
No income 2.61 .611 3.63*
<8000 2.25 .60
Exercise- continuous
• To conduct ANOVA to compare different items of Social Measure to see whether
they have significant different at .05 level among different income groups
1. Define the IV and DV
IV-income groups
DV-8 items of SM
DV1=SM1, DV2=SM2, ----------DV9=SM8
2. Perform the ANOVA in SPSS
3. According to the result of F-test (ANOVA, with sig value)select the variables
(items) which have Signiant different at .05 level (p<.05)
4. Such as SR4 &
Interpretation on the result
• Result shows that compared with participants/youth with post-
secondary education, those with high school educational level may
more disagree that SR4(Low salary result in working poor -SR4) can
induce poverty issue (F=2.69, p<.05),with Mean (2.77:2.99), Sd.
(.60 :.71)
Exercise- two
• To explore the correlation between SR and IR, SM and IM,
respectively, to see whether they have significant correlation at .05
level, if yes, positive or negative correlation between them ?
• Run in SPSS
• Define DV1=SR, DV2=IR, and DV3=SM DV4=IM
• Analysis  correlation bivariate
 Correlations
IR SR IM Social_Measure

IR Pearson Correlation 1 .251** .186** .257**

SR and IR r=.251 (p<.01)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 .000

N 298 286 295 292

SM and IM r=.215 (p<.01)

SR Pearson Correlation .251** 1 .010 .539**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .860 .000

N 286 286 285 283

IM Pearson Correlation .186** .010 1 .215**

Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .860 .000

N 295 285 296 291

Social_Measure Pearson Correlation .257** .539** .215** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000

N 292 283 291 293

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

 Table 5:
Inter-correlations of different causes and measures of youth
poverty

4
Scale 1. 2. 3.
.
1. Individual factors/IR --
2.Social factors/SR .251**
3. Individual measures/IM
4. Social measures/SM .215**

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-

tailed).
Exercise- two
• To explore the correlation among SR,IR, SM and IM, respectively, to
see whether they have significant correlation at .05 level, if yes,
positive or negative correlation between them ?
• Run in SPSS
• Define DV1=SR, DV2=IR, and DV3=SM DV4=IM
• Analysis  correlation bivariate
 Correlations
IR SR IM Social_Measure

IR Pearson Correlation 1 .251** .186** .257**

SR and IR r=.251 (p<.01)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 .000

N 298 286 295 292

SM and IM r=.215 (p<.01)

SR Pearson Correlation .251** 1 .010 .539**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .860 .000

N 286 286 285 283

IM Pearson Correlation .186** .010 1 .215**

Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .860 .000

N 295 285 296 291

Social_Measure Pearson Correlation .257** .539** .215** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000

N 292 283 291 293

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

 Table 5:
Inter-correlations of different causes and measures of youth
poverty

4
Scale 1. 2. 3.
.
1. Individual factors/IR --
2.Social factors/SR .251** --
3. Individual measures/IM .186** .01 --
4. Social measures/SM .257** .539** .215**

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-

tailed).
Exercise- two
• To explore the correlation among each items of IR and each items of
IM, respectively, to see whether they have significant correlation
at .05 level, if yes, positive or negative correlation between them ?
• Run in SPSS
• Define DV1=IR1, DV2=IR2, and DV3=IR3 DV4=IR4
• DV5=IM1, DV6=IM2, DV7=IM3, DV8=IM4
• Analysis  correlation bivariate
 Correlations
IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 IM1 IM2 IM3 IM4

IR1 Pearson Correlation 1 .176** .303** .109 -.079 .158** .044 .014

Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .000 .061 .176 .006 .453 .816

N 298 298 298 298 297 298 298 296

IR2 Pearson Correlation .176** 1 .043 .124* .042 .055 .095 .084

Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .461 .032 .467 .341 .100 .151

N 298 300 300 299 298 299 300 297

IR3 Pearson Correlation .303** .043 1 .144* .019 .150** .145* .053

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .461 .012 .745 .009 .012 .360

N 298 300 300 299 298 299 300 297

IR4 Pearson Correlation .109 .124* .144* 1 .081 .057 .115* .137*

Sig. (2-tailed) .061 .032 .012 .163 .326 .046 .018

N 298 299 299 299 297 298 299 296

IM1 Pearson Correlation -.079 .042 .019 .081 1 .190** .172** .177**

Sig. (2-tailed) .176 .467 .745 .163 .001 .003 .002

N 297 298 298 297 298 298 298 296

IM2 Pearson Correlation .158** .055 .150** .057 .190** 1 .205** .100

Sig. (2-tailed) .006 .341 .009 .326 .001 .000 .087

N 298 299 299 298 298 299 299 297

IM3 Pearson Correlation .044 .095 .145* .115* .172** .205** 1 .221**

Sig. (2-tailed) .453 .100 .012 .046 .003 .000 .000

N 298 300 300 299 298 299 300 297

IM4 Pearson Correlation .014 .084 .053 .137* .177** .100 .221** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .816 .151 .360 .018 .002 .087 .000

N 296 297 297 296 296 297 297 297

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1-IR1 --

2-IR2 .176** --

3-IR3 .303** .043 --

4-IR4 .109 .124* .144* --

5-IM1 -.079 .042 .019 .081 --

6-IM2 .158** .055 .150** .057 .190** --

7-IM3 .044 .095 .145* .115* .172** .205** --

8-IM4 .014 .084 .053 .137* .177** .100 .221**

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).