BM3060: 2023 Semester II

Session 7
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Ms. Nilmini Rathnayake
DATA (Plural) ….. DATUM(Singular )

Data is a set of values of ‘subjects’ with respect to

variables examined in the study. Examples: Persons,
Employees, Patients, Animals, Plants, Desks, Houses.
Data is raw and unorganized facts that need to be
processed.
When you collect data, you need ‘purify’ and validate
before processing. Data may not be useful until
organized and processed.

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 TWO Types of DATA : Quantitative
and Qualitative
Quantitative:
•Data presented as numbers.
•Can be analyzed using mathematical and
statistical methods to derive conclusions.
Qualitative:
•Data NOT presented in the form of numbers.
May be of words and expressions.
•Analysis is to derive themes and patterns

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DATA

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In your research, you need to decide research methods
depending on:
your research questions
your underlying philosophy of research
your preferences and skills

Thereby you need to collect QUANTITATIVE or

QUALITATIVE data.
HOW TO DECIDED? WHICH
DATA?

If you: Then Use:

- want to conduct statistical analysis
- want to be precise Quantitative
- know what you want to measure
- want to cover a large group
- want narrative or in-depth information
- are not sure what you are able to measure Qualitative
- do not need to quantify the results

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TWO ways to get data for your research

Secondary data
Data someone else has collected

Primary data
 Data you collect
Qualitative QUALITATIVE
Data Collection:
RESEARCH

Focus Group
Interviews
Interviews

Observation
Observation Data
Data
Collection Case
Collection
Studies
Techniques
Techniques

Action
Research
Grounded
Theory
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INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOQVATIVE MINDS
Quantitative Data Collection:
Surveys where there are a large number of
respondents (e.g. Likert scale)
Observations (counts of numbers and/or coding
data into numbers)
Secondary data (e.g. Government data;
Company annual reports)
 WHAT IS THE UNIT OF
ANALYSIS?
 One of the most important ideas in a research
project is the unit of analysis.
 The unit of analysis is the major entity that you
are analyzing in your study.
 Examples: Individuals; Groups; Artifacts
(books, photos, newspapers); Geographical
units (town, census tract, state); Social
interactions (divorces, arrests)
 Researcher need tohave a clear view of unit of
analysis.

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UNIT OF ANALYSIS,
POPULATION AND SAMPLE
Unit of Analysis

Unit of Analysis
 WHERE THE DATA COME
FROM?
Secondary data
data someone else has
collected

Primary data
data you collect

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SECONDARY DATA SOURCES

Central Bank; Census and Satisics Department

Vital Statistics – birth, death certificates
Hospital, clinic, school nurse records
Private and foundation databases
City and county governments
Surveillance data from state government
programs
 SECONDARY DATA:
LIMITATIONS
When was it collected? For how long?
 May be out of date for what you want to analyze.
 May not have been collected long enough for detecting trends.

Is the data set complete?

 There may be missing information on some observations
 Unless such missing information is caught and corrected for, analysis
will be biased.
SECONDARY DATA:
LIMITATIONS
Are there confounding problems?
 Sample selection bias?
 Source choice bias?
 In time series, did some observations drop out over time?

Are the data consistent/reliable?

 Did variables drop out over time?
 Did variables change in definition over time?

Is the information exactly what you need?

 In some cases, may have to use “proxy variables” – variables that may
approximate something you really wanted to measure.
 Are they reliable?
 Is there correlation to what you actually want to measure?
 SECONDARY DATA –
NoADVANTAGES
need to reinvent the wheel.
 If someone has found the data, take advantage of it.

It will save you money.

 Even if you have to pay for access, often it is cheaper in terms of money than
collecting your own data.
It will save you time.
 Primary data collection is very time consuming.

It may be very accurate.

 value
 Exploring research queWhen especially a government agency has collected the
data.
It has great exploratory stions and formulating hypothesis to test.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
…
A systematic, subjective approach used to
describe life experiences and give them
meaning
Useful in understanding human experiences
such as pain, caring, powerlessness, and
comfort
Focuses on understanding the whole
Consistent with holistic philosophy of nursing
ANALYSIS OF
QUALITATIVE DATA?

The analysis of qualitative data can come in

many forms including highlighting key words,
extracting themes, and elaborating on concepts.
 QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH…
Attempts to explain phenomena by collecting and
analysing numerical data
Tells you if there is a “difference” but not necessarily
why.
Data collected are always numerical and analysed using
statistical methods.
Variables are controlled as much as possible so we can
eliminate interference and measure the effect of any
change
Randomisation to reduce subjective bias
If there are no numbers involved, its not quantitative
 ANALYSIS OF
QUANTITATIVE DATA?

Quantitative data is about quantities, and

therefore numbers
Quantitative data are numerical information, the
analysis of which involves statistical techniques.
The type of data you collect guides the analysis
process.

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 RECALL:
HOW TO DECIDED? WHICH
DATA?
If you: Then Use:
- want to conduct statistical analysis
- want to be precise Quantitative
- know what you want to measure
- want to cover a large group
- want narrative or in-depth information
- are not sure what you are able to measure Qualitative
- do not need to quantify the results

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RESEARCH AND
RESEARCH METHODS
Research methods are split broadly into quantitative and qualitative
methods

Which you choose will depend on

 your research questions
 your underlying philosophy of research
 your preferences and skills
WHY MIXED METHODS?
Quantitative data can reveal generalizable information for a large
group of people
 These data often fail to provide specific answers, reasons,
explanations or examples

Qualitative research provides data about meaning and context

regarding the people and environments of study
 Findings are often not generalizable because of the small numbers &
narrow range of participants

Both methods have strengths and weaknesses

 When used together, these methods can be complimentary

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 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN RESEARCH
Informed consent
 Informed consent is a process of communication between you and participant that
often leads to agreement or permission
Anonymity and confidentiality
 Anonymity means that there is no way for anyone (including the researcher) to
personally identify participants in the study.
 Confidentiality and anonymity are distinct but related concepts; confidentiality refers
to the need to keep identifiable information about individuals private
Participants protected from potential harm
 It is generally accepted that participation in research should pose no risk

Researchers protected from potential harm

 Researchers can never wholly guarantee safety in any research, but researchers must
have reasonable protection

Jane Lewis (2003)

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