Transport in animals

Blood
By Christine Mae Caser
 Blood
Blood is a liquid that contains cells. The liquid part of blood is called plasma. Most of the cells that
are carried in this liquid are red blood cells. A much smaller number are white blood cells. There
are also small cell fragments called platelets; they are formed from special cells in the bone
marrow (Figure 9.18 and 9.19).

Figure 9.18: The components of blood. These Figure 9.19: A photomicrograph of blood. The
cells and cell fragments float in a pale yellow liquid blood has been coloured with a stain to make the
called plasma. different kinds of cell show up clearly (x1500).
 Red blood cells
Red blood cells are red because they contain the pigment (coloured substance) haemoglobin. This
carries oxygen. Haemoglobin is a protein, and contains iron. It is this iron that readily combines with
oxygen where the oxygen concentration is high. This happens where blood capillaries take the
blood close to the alveoli in the lungs. Haemoglobin that is combined with oxygen is called
oxyhaemoglobin.

Oxyhaemoglobin readily releases its oxygen where the oxygen supply is low. This happens when
the blood pass through capillaries close to cells that are respiring, using up oxygen.
Red blood cells are unusual because they do not possess a nucleus or mitochondria. The lack of a
nucleus in a red blood cell means that there is more space for packing in millions of molecules of
haemoglobin.

Another unusual feature of red blood cells is their shape. They are biconcave discs - like a flat disc
that has been pinched in on both sides. This, together with their small size, gives them a relatively
large surface area compared with their volume. This high surface area to volume ratio speeds up
the rate at which oxygen can diffuse in and out of the red blood cell.

The small size of the red blood cell is also useful in enabling it to squeeze through even the tiniest
capillaries. This means that oxygen can be taken very close to every cell in the body.
White blood cells
White blood cells are easily recognised, because - unlike
red blood cells - they have a nucleus. The nucleus is
often quite large.

Many white blood cells can move around. They can

squeeze out through the walls of blood capillaries into all
parts of the body. Their function is to fight pathogens
(disease-causing microorganisms), and to clear up any
dead body cells.

Some white blood cells destroy pathogens by engulfing

them (taking them into their cytoplasm) and digesting
them, in a process called phagocytosis (Figure 9.20).

Other white blood cells produce molecules called

antibodies. These molecules fix onto pathogens and help
to destroy them. If you are studying the Supplement, you
will find out more about antibodies in Chapter 10. Figure 9.20: How a white blood cell destroys
bacteria by phagocytosis.
White blood cells that destroy pathogens by phagocytosis are called phagocytes. Most phagocytes
have a lobed nucleus, like the ones in Figure 9.19 and 9.20.
White blood cells that produce antibodies are called lymphocytes. They usually have a large, round
nucleus almost fills the cell (Figure 9.21).

Figure 9.21: Electron micrograph of a

lymphocytes x500.
Platelets
Platelets are small fragments of cells, with no nucleus. They are made in the red bone marrow,
and they are involved in blood clotting.
Blood clotting stops pathogens getting into the body through breaks in the skin. Normally, your
skin provides a very effective barrier against the entry of bacteria and viruses. Blood clotting
also prevents too much blood loss.

Blood plasma contains a soluble protein called fibrinogen. When a blood vessel is broken, the
platelets release a substance that makes the fibrinogen change. The soluble fibrinogen
becomes an insoluble protein called fibrin. This forms fibres, which pile up on top of each
other to make a mesh-like structure that helps to seal the wound. Red blood cells get trapped
in the mesh.
 The platelets stick together to form clumps. The fibres, the trapped red blood cells and the clumps
of platelets form a blood clot (Figures 9.22 and 9.23).

Figure 9.22: The sequence of events that Figure 9.23: This scanning electron micrograph shows red blood
causes a blood clot to form. cells trapped in a tangle of fibrin fibres.
Plasma
Blood plasma is mostly water. Many
substances are dissolved in it.
Soluble nutrients such as glucose,
amino acids, and mineral ions are
carried in the plasma.

Plasma also transport hormones

such as adrenaline (Chapter 12) and
waste products, including carbon
dioxide and urea (Chapters 11 and
13).
Questions
21.State how you can distinguish a white blood cell from a red blood cell in a photomicrograph.
22.Write one sentence that examples, in you own words, what blood plasma is.
23.Outline two roles of blood clotting.
24.Explain how you can tell the difference between a phagocyte and a lymphocyte, in a
photomicrograph.
25.Blood plasma and platelets both play important parts in forming a blood clot. Describe how
they do this.