Gastrointestinal Bleeding Aug 24-1

Gastrointestinal Bleeding
Case…
 Hassan is 45 y/o saudi gentleman,

presents to ED at KKUH early morning,
C/O vomiting blood.
 How would you approach?
 How would you manage?
PERSPECTIVE
Epidemiology
o relatively common problem
orequires early consultation and hospital
admission.
o Mortality rate for GI bleeding is approximately

10%.
o Diagnostic modalities have improved much

more than therapeutic techniques.
GI bleeding
o is often easy to identify
…….when there is clear evidence of vomiting
blood or passing blood in the stool.
o may be subtle,
………with signs and symptoms of
hypovolemia, such as dizziness, weakness,
or syncope.
o Management approach depends on whether

the hemorrhage is located in the proximal or
the distal segment of the GI tract (i.e., upper
or lower GI bleeding).
o These segments are anatomically defined by

the ligament of Treitz in the duodenum.
Lower GI bleeding (LGIB)
o affects a smaller portion of patients
o fewer hospital admissions than UGIB.

o Occur in persons of any age.

o Most commonly affects people in their 40s
through 70s.
o Most deaths in patients older than 60 years.
o UGIB is more common in men than in women

(in a 2 : 1 ratio)
o LGIB is more common in women.
o Significant UGIB requiring admission is more

common in adults.
o LGIB requiring admission is more common in

children.
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Differential Considerations
oPeptic ulcer disease

three fourths of
ogastric erosions adult patients
ovarices with UGIB.
oDiverticulosis 80% of adults

oangiodysplasia with LGIB.
In children,
o Esophagitis most common
o Gastritis causes of UGIB
o peptic ulcer disease
o infectious colitis most

o inflammatory bowel disease common
causes of
LGIB.
most common cause

Meckel’s diverticulum of massive LGIB in
& intussusception children younger
than 2 years of age
o At all ages, anorectal abnormalities are the

most common cause of minor LGIB.
o No source of bleeding is identified

in approximately 10% of patients
with GI bleeding.
o In abdominal aortic grafts pt with with GI

bleeding, the possibility of aortoenteric fistula
should be considered
o Prompt surgical consultation in the ED

should be obtained if this is suspected,
because bleeding can be massive and fatal.
Rapid Assessment and

Stabilization
oMost patients with GI bleeding

are easy to diagnose by history
+/- physical exam
o If hemodynamically unstable should

undergo rapid evaluation and resuscitation.
o should be undressed quickly with

placement of cardiac and oxygen
saturation monitors.
o supplemental oxygen should be given as

needed.
o At least two large-bore (minimum 18-

gauge);
o Send samples for
o CBC, for hg, plat, hematoc.
o Coagulation profile
o type and screen or type and crossmatch
o crystalloid resuscitation should be

initiated.
o NS 2-L bolus in adults or 20 mL/kg

in children until the patient’s vital
signs have stabilized or the patient
has received 40 mL/kg of
crystalloid in an adult or 60 mL/kg
as a child.
o If remain unstable give type O, type-specific,

or cross matched blood, depending on
availability.
o Persistently unstable patients should receive

immediate consultation with a
gastroenterologist for UGIB and with a
surgeon for LGIB.
History
In 50%
oPatients typically complain of vomiting
red blood or coffee grounds–like material,
or passing black or bloody stool.
oHematemesis (vomiting blood) occurs
with bleeding of the esophagus, stomach,
or proximal small bowel.
History
oHematemesis may be bright red or
darker (i.e., coffee grounds–like) as
a result of the conversion of
hemoglobin to hematin or other
pigments by hydrochloric acid in the
stomach.
o The color of vomited or aspirated blood from

the stomach does not differentiate between
arterial and venous bleeding.
o Melena, or black tarry stool, will result from

the presence of approximately 150 to 200
mL of blood in the GI tract for a prolonged
period.
o Melena is seen in approximately

o 70% of patients with UGIB
o one third of patients with LGIB.
o Blood from the duodenum or jejunum must

remain in the GI tract for approximately 8
hours before turning black.
o Occasionally, black stool may follow bleeding

into the lower portion of the small bowel and
ascending colon.
o Stool may remain black and tarry for

several days, even though bleeding has
stopped.
Hematochezia, or bloody stool (bright red or

maroon)
o most often signifies LGIB
o Could be due to a brisk UGIB with rapid transit

time through the bowel in 10 to 15% of patients.
o a more proximal source of significant bleeding

must be excluded before assuming the bleeding
is from the lower GI tract.
o Approximately two thirds of patients with

LGIB present with red blood from bleeding
per rectum.
o Small amounts of red blood (5 mL) from

rectal bleeding, such as bleeding due to
hemorrhoids, may cause the water in the
toilet bowl to appear bright red.
DDX
o Bright red stools also can be seen after
ingestion of a large quantity of beets
o Hemoccult testing would be negative and the

patient also will report pink colored water in
the toilet bowl.
Important qs
o duration and quantity of bleeding
o associated symptoms
o previous history of bleeding
o current medications,
o alcohol
o NSAID ASA
o allergies
o associated medical illnesses
o previous surgery
symptoms of hypovolemia
…..dizziness, weakness, or loss of
consciousness, most often after standing up.
o Other nonspecific complaints include

dyspnea, confusion, and abdominal pain.
o Rarely an elderly patient may present with

ischemic chest pain precipitated by
significant anemia due to a GI bleed.
o One in five patients with GI bleeding may

have only nonspecific complaints.
o The history is of limited help in predicting the

site or quantity of bleeding.
o Patients with a previously documented GI

lesion bleed from the same site in only 60%
of cases.
o Gross estimates of blood loss based on the

volume and color of the vomitus or stool are
inaccurate.
Physical Examination
oVital signs and postural changes in heart rate
and blood pressure are insensitive and
nonspecific, with the exception of significant,
sustained heart rate increase and hypotension.
o All patients hypotensive and tachycardic

should be assumed to have a significant
hemorrhage.
o Normal vital signs do not exclude a

significant hemorrhage
o postural changes in heart rate and blood

pressure may occur in individuals who are
not bleeding
o general appearance
o vital signs
o mental status (including restlessness)
o skin signs (e.g., color, warmth, and moisture to
assess for shock, or presence of lesions such
as telangiectasia, bruises, or petechiae to
assess for vascular diseases or
hypocoagulable states)
o pulmonary and cardiac findings
o abdominal examination
o Frequent reassessment is important because

a patient’s status may change quickly.
o Rectal Examination Rectal and stool

examinations are often key to making or
confirming the diagnosis of GI bleeding.
o The finding of red, black, or melenic stool
early in the assessment is helpful in
prompting early recognition and management
of patients with GI bleeding.
o The absence of black or bloody stool,

however, does not exclude the diagnosis of
GI bleeding.
o Regardless of the apparent character and
color of the stool, occult blood testing is
indicated.
Ancillary Testing
Tests for Occult Blood
oThe presence of hemoglobin in occult
amounts in stool is confirmed by tests such as
( Hemoccult, HemaPrompt).
oStool tests for occult blood may have positive

results 14 days after a single, major episode of
UGIB.
False-positive
o associated with the ingestion of
o certain fruits (e.g., cantaloupe, grapefruit, figs),
o uncooked vegetables (e.g., radish, cauliflower,
broccoli)
o red meat
o methylene blue, chlorophyll, iodide, cupric
sulfate, and bromide preparations.
False-negative
o uncommon but can be caused by bile or

ingestion of magnesium containing antacids
or ascorbic acid.
o Tests to evaluate gastric contents for occult

blood (e.g., Gastroccult) can be unreliable
and should not be used for this purpose.
Clinical Laboratory
o The initial hematocrit may be misleading in
patients with preexisting anemia or
polycythemia.
o Changes in the hematocrit may lag

significantly behind actual blood loss.
o rapid infusion of crystalloid in nonbleeding

patients also may cause a decrease in
hematocrit by hemodilution.
o hemoglobin concentration of 8 g/dL or less

(hematocrit <25%) from acute blood loss
usually require blood therapy.
o After transfusion and in the absence of

ongoing blood loss, the hematocrit can be
expected to increase approximately 3% for
each unit of blood administered (hemoglobin
level increases by 1 mg/dL).
o The PT should be used to determine whether

a patient has a preexisting coagulopathy.
An elevated PT may indicate

o vitamin K deficiency
o liver dysfunction
o warfarin therapy
o consumptive coagulopathy.
o Patients with anticoagulants or with an

elevated PT and evidence of active bleeding
should receive sufficient FFP to correct the
PT.
o Serial platelet counts are used to determine

the need for platelet transfusions (i.e., less
than 50,000/mm3).
Blood Bank Blood

o should be sent for “type and hold” or type
and crossmatch studies early in the patient’s
care.
o Immediate transfusion needs in unstable

patients can be met with O-positive packed
red blood cells (O-negative packed red blood
cells in women of childbearing age whose Rh
status is unknown).
o Type-specific blood is usually available within

10 to 15 minutes.
o Group O blood and type-specific blood are

safe for patients and cause few transfusion
reactions.
o Fully crossmatched blood may take 60

minutes to prepare.
Other Laboratory Tests

o Electrolytes usually normal
o Urea and creatinin
Patients with repeated vomiting,

may develop,
oHypokalemia
oHyponatremia
ometabolic alkalosis
correct with adequate hydration

and the resolution of vomiting.
o Patients with shock often have

metabolic acidosis from lactate
accumulation.
o High Urea as a result of

o absorption of blood from the GI tract
o hypovolemia causing prerenal azotemia
ECG in all patients with a GI bleed who are

o older than 50 years
o preexisting ischemic cardiac disease,
o significant anemia
o chest pain
o shortness of breath
o persistent hypotension.
Asymptomatic myocardial ischemia may

develop in the setting of GI bleeding.
o Patients with GI bleeding and myocardial

ischemia should receive packed red blood
cells as soon as possible
Imaging
o No need for plain abdominal radiography
unless aspiration or with signs and symptoms
of bowel perforation.
o air consistent with bowel perforation is a rare

finding with UGIB
o Need immediate surgical consultation and
operative repair.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
oSwallowing blood during epistaxis or from the
oral cavity may cause hematemesis or melena.
oRed vomitus may be due to food products
(e.g., Jell-O, tomato sauce, wine), and black
stool may be due to iron therapy or bismuth
(e.g., Pepto-Bismol).
MANAGEMENT
oQuick identification
oAggressive resuscitation
oPrompt consultation
After initial resuscitation of the patient,

oit is important to identify whether the
hemorrhage is proximal or distal to the ligament
of Treitz (i.e., UGIB or LGIB).
oIf the patient’s vomitus demonstrates blood,

then the diagnosis of UGIB is confirmed.
o If a patient reports bloody or “coffee grounds”

emesis or if melenic stool is present, an
upper GI bleed is more likely.
Emergency management of patients with gastrointestinal bleeding. ED, emergency
department; IV, intravenous; LGIB, lower gastrointestinal bleeding; UGIB, upper
gastrointestinal bleeding.
Anoscopy/Proctosigmoidoscopy
oPatients with mild rectal bleeding who do not
have obviously bleeding hemorrhoids should
undergo anoscopy or proctosigmoidoscopy.
oIf bleeding internal hemorrhoids are
discovered, and the patient does not have
portal hypertension, the patient may be
discharged with appropriate treatment and
follow-up evaluation for hemorrhoids.
o If hemorrhoids are not detected, it is

important to determine if the stool above the
rectum contains blood.
o absence of blood above the rectum in a

patient who is actively bleeding indicates that
the source of bleeding is in the rectum.
o Presence of blood above the anoscope or

sigmoidoscope does not invariably indicate a
proximal source of bleeding, because
retrograde passage of blood into the more
proximal colon commonly occurs.
o Such patients need further evaluation.

Endoscopy
oEndoscopy is the most accurate diagnostic
tool available for the evaluation of UGIB.
oIt identifies a lesion in 78% to 95% of patients

with UGIB if it is performed within 12 to 24
hours of the hemorrhage.
o Endoscopy-for upper GI bleeding.
o Colonoscopy is an effective tool for diagnosis

and selected treatment of LGIB.
Angiography and Tagged Red Blood

oCell Scan Angiography can detect the location
of UGIB in two thirds of patients studied.
oSince the advent of endoscopy, however, the
use of angiography has decreased significantly,
and today angiography is used in only 1% of
patients with UGIB.
Nuclear isotope–tagged red blood cell scan
o In some patients with more indolent or

elusive bleeding,
o Usually performed from the inpatient unit,
may identify the bleeding site.
Gastric Acid Secretion Inhibition

oAll patients with peptic ulcer disease
documented by endoscopy should receive
therapy with a proton-pump inhibitor (e.g.,
omeprazole).
oThere is no documented benefit to initiating
this therapy or administering H2 antihistamines
in the ED for patients with UGIB.
Octreotide (Somatostatin Analogues)
oIV infusion of octreotide at 25–50 μg/hour for

a minimum of 24 hours
oIn patients with documented esophageal
varices and acute upper GI bleeding
oshould receive in monitored bed.
o Octreotide is a useful addition to endoscopic

sclerotherapy and decreases rebleeding
occurrences.
o Octreotide may also reduce the incidence of
lower GI rebleeding secondary to
angiodysplasia.
Sengstaken-Blakemore Tube
oRarely used in tertiary care centre.
oShould not be used without endoscopic
documentation of the source of bleeding
because complications are common and
significant (14% major, 3% fatal).
o A trial of balloon tamponade should be

considered in an exsanguinating patient with
probable variceal bleeding in whom
endoscopy is not immediately available.
o Consultation with a surgeon or

gastroenterologist is advisable.
Surgery
oFor all hemodynamically unstable patients
with active bleeding who do not respond to
medical therapy.
oMortality rate for patients undergoing

emergency procedures for GI bleeding is
approximately 23%.
Emergency surgical consultation for :
o blood replacement exceeds 5 units

within the first 4 to 6 hours
or
o 2 units of blood is needed every 4
hours
DISPOSITION
Risk Stratification
oRisk stratification involves combining
historical, clinical, and laboratory data to
determine the risk of death and rebleeding in
patients presenting to an ED with GI bleeding.
o patients present to the ED with a vague

complaint of vomiting blood or passing blood
from the rectum in whom detailed history and
examination allows a diagnosis of
hemorrhoid, or anal fissure, or there may be
little or no objective evidence of significant GI
bleeding…..Discharge pt with education
patients should be educated about the signs and

symptoms of significant GI bleeding and when to
return to the ED
o Patents should undergo specific follow-up

evaluation within 24 to 36 hours.
o They should be instructed to avoid aspirin,
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and
alcohol.
THANK YOU

Gastrointestinal Bleeding Aug 24-1

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Gastrointestinal Bleeding

 Hassan is 45 y/o saudi gentleman,

o Mortality rate for GI bleeding is approximately

o Diagnostic modalities have improved much

o Management approach depends on whether

o These segments are anatomically defined by

Lower GI bleeding (LGIB)

o affects a smaller portion of patients

o fewer hospital admissions than UGIB.

o Occur in persons of any age.

o UGIB is more common in men than in women

o Significant UGIB requiring admission is more

o LGIB requiring admission is more common in

oPeptic ulcer disease

oDiverticulosis 80% of adults

o infectious colitis most

most common cause

o At all ages, anorectal abnormalities are the

o No source of bleeding is identified

o In abdominal aortic grafts pt with with GI

o Prompt surgical consultation in the ED

Rapid Assessment and

oMost patients with GI bleeding

o If hemodynamically unstable should

o should be undressed quickly with

o supplemental oxygen should be given as

o At least two large-bore (minimum 18-

o crystalloid resuscitation should be

o NS 2-L bolus in adults or 20 mL/kg

o If remain unstable give type O, type-specific,

o Persistently unstable patients should receive

o The color of vomited or aspirated blood from

o Melena, or black tarry stool, will result from

o Melena is seen in approximately

o Blood from the duodenum or jejunum must

o Occasionally, black stool may follow bleeding

o Stool may remain black and tarry for

Hematochezia, or bloody stool (bright red or

o Could be due to a brisk UGIB with rapid transit

o a more proximal source of significant bleeding

o Approximately two thirds of patients with

o Small amounts of red blood (5 mL) from

o Hemoccult testing would be negative and the

o Other nonspecific complaints include

o Rarely an elderly patient may present with

o One in five patients with GI bleeding may

o The history is of limited help in predicting the

o Patients with a previously documented GI

o Gross estimates of blood loss based on the

o All patients hypotensive and tachycardic

o Normal vital signs do not exclude a

o postural changes in heart rate and blood

o Frequent reassessment is important because

o Rectal Examination Rectal and stool

o The absence of black or bloody stool,

oStool tests for occult blood may have positive

o uncommon but can be caused by bile or

o Tests to evaluate gastric contents for occult

o Changes in the hematocrit may lag

o rapid infusion of crystalloid in nonbleeding

o hemoglobin concentration of 8 g/dL or less

o After transfusion and in the absence of

o The PT should be used to determine whether