Cells and Sugars

Basic Chemistry
• Atoms
–Nucleus
•Protons
•Neutrons
–Electrons
Atomic structure
 Atomic structure

+
+++ +++ +++
+++ +++ +++
+ ++

Hydrogen (H)
1 proton
1 electron
1 valence electron
Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N) Oxygen (O)
6 protons 7 protons 8 protons
6 electrons 7 electrons 8 electrons
4 valence electrons 5 valence electron 6 valence electrons
 Atomic structure
+++
+++
+++
+

Neon (Ne)
10 protons
10 electrons
8 valence electrons

• Atoms with “full” outer shells (e.g. Neon)

are very stable and unreactive
• Atoms with “unfilled” outer shells will react
with other atoms to achieve a full outer
shell
Marieb, Essentials of Human Anatomy and Phys, 5th Ed.
 Atomic structure

• To gain a “full” outer shell atoms may;

1. Gain electrons
2. Lose electrons
3. Share electrons
 Atomic structure
• Gain or loss of electrons  ions

• Loss of an electron(s) = oxidation

• Gain of an electron(s) = reduction
 Molecular structure
• Share electrons  covalent bonds
 Molecular structure
• Share electrons  covalent bonds
 Molecular structure
• Isomers
– Structural

– Geometric

– Optical (enantiomers)
 Covalent bonds
• All bonds contain two electrons shared
between two atoms. Sharing may be equal
or unequal.

• Covalent bonds
– Sharing of the electrons is equal e.g., C-H,
C-C or C=C
• Polar covalent bonds
– Sharing of the electrons is unequal
 Covalent bonds
• Polar covalent bonds
– Because the sharing of the electrons is
unequal, one atom becomes slightly –ve while
the other becomes slightly +ve.

+
- + O - H
- +
O H + N H
C
R R R R
– Caused by differences in the electronegativity
of the atoms forming the bond
 Covalent bonds
• Electronegativity

– Elements to the right of the periodic table are more

electronegative than elements to the left

– Elements to the right have more protons in the nucleus

resulting in greater attraction for electrons

– The greater the difference in electronegativities, the

greater the polarisation of the bond
 Covalent bonds
• Biochemical reactions taking place inside
our cells involve the breaking of covalent
bonds and formation of new ones
• Bonds are broken when the shared
electrons are no longer shared
– Two ways this can occur
• Heterolytic fission
• Homolytic fission
 Covalent bonds
• Heterolytic fission
– One of the two atoms which had formed the bond takes sole possession
of the two electrons.
 Covalent bonds
• Homolytic fission
– Here the shared pair of electrons splits with each of the two atoms
retaining one electron.
 Functional Groups
• Functional groups are groups of atoms
which determine the properties and
reactions of a bio-chemical molecule
• Biologically important functional groups
are;
– Hydroxyl
– Carbonyl
– Carboxyl
– Amino
– Sulphydryl
– Phosphate
 Hydroxyl groups
• O-H bond is polarised, hydroxyl groups
form hydrogen bonds important in the
structure of macromolecules
• Help make molecules water soluble

• alcohols and sugars

 carbonyl groups
• C=O group, also polarised and like
hydroxyl groups help make molecules
water soluble
• Two forms;
O

– Aldehydes, C
R H

O
– Ketones, C
R R

• All sugars contain an aldehyde or ketone

group
 carboxyl groups
• -COOH, effectively a carbonyl and a
hydroxyl group combined

• Carboxyl groups are weak acids so they

partially dissocate in water to release
hydrogen ions
O O

C C + H+
R OH R O-
 Amino groups
• -NH2,

• Amino groups act as bases, accepting

hydrogen ions from the solution
H H

+
N + H+ N H

H H

• Normally ionised under physiological

conditions
 Sulphydryl groups
• -SH,

• Important in helping stabilise protein

structures, two –SH groups interact to
form a disulphide bridge , -S-S-
 Phosphate groups
• -OPO32-

• Is the ionised form of phosphoric acid,

confers a negative charge on molecules
• Often a means of storing/ transferring
energy between molecules (ATP etc)