Chapter One

Motion of Particles and

Force
1-1 Position Vector and Equation of Motion
1-1-1 Time and Space
1-1-2 Particle
 An object does the translational motion

 The geometric size is much smaller

1-1-3 Reference Frame
 An object or a group of objects that is chosen as the reference object to
describe the motion is called the reference frame.

 The choice of reference frame is arbitrary and depends on the specific

property of the motion as well as the convenience of description.
1-1-4 Position Vector
 The position vector can be expressed as
y
y
P
 The magnitude of is
r

O x
x
 The direction of can be determined by the z
following direction cosines z
Fig. 1-1 Position vector

 If the motion is restricted to a plane, and the position vector of the particle
can be reduced to
1-1-5 Equation of Motion
 When a particle moves, its position is varying with time. That is

 The position vector is also a function of time. That is

The variation of position vector as a function of time is called equation of motion.

 Based on the equation of motion, we can find the position vector or coordinates
of a particle corresponding to a specific instant and therefore determine the
motion of the particle. By connecting the coordinates at individual instants, we
can draw the path of the particle. The equation of motion is also called the
parametric equation of the path of the particle.
1-2 Velocity and Acceleration
y
1-2-1 Displacement
 In the motion from to , both the magnitude and the A
direction of the position vector have changed. To
represent this change, we define the directed line
𝒓 𝐴 ∆𝒓 B

segment from point to point as the displacement 𝒓𝐵

vector. O x
⃗
𝐴𝐵=𝒓 𝐵 − 𝒓 𝐴 Fig. 1-2 Displacement vector
 Position vectors and can be resolved into

 The magnitude of displacement

1-2-2 Path
 The length of the curved line from point to point is called the path over the
time interval .
 The path is always a positive scalar quantity.
 In general, the magnitude of the displacement is not equal to the path. Only
when the time interval approaches zero, namely, in the time interval , may the
magnitude of the differential displacement be equal to the differential path ds,
that is

1-2-3 Velocity
 The ratio of the displacement to the time interval is defined as the average
velocity of the particle
 When the time interval is decreased and approaching zero, the average
velocity approaches a limiting value which is called the instantaneous
velocity

 The direction of velocity is the direction of

average velocity in the limit when shrinks to zero. 𝐵3 𝐵2
𝒗𝐴
It is along the tangent to the curve. 𝐵1
A B
 If the motion of a particle is restricted to a
∆𝒓
plane and the position vector is Fig. 1-3 Direction of the velocity

we have
 If we use and to represent the components of along the and axes, we
have

 The magnitude of the velocity

 The direction of the velocity can be indicated by the angle between and the
positive direction of axis, that is

1-2-4 Speed
 Average speed involves total distance covered, independent of direction; that is
defined to be the ratio of path to the time interval it took
 If the time interval shrinks closer and closer to zero and the limit value of
average speed is called the instantaneous speed

 Because , we have , that is,

1-2-5 Acceleration
 We define the ratio of the change in the velocity to the
∆𝒗
time interval as the average acceleration, 𝒗𝑨 𝒗𝐵
𝒗𝐴 𝒗𝐵
B
 As approaches zero, the average acceleration takes the
limit value which is called the instantaneous acceleration A
Fig. 1-4 Acceleration
 If the motion of a particle is restricted to a plane, we have

 Use and to represent the components of acceleration on the and axes, we

have

 The magnitude of acceleration can be evaluated as

 The direction of acceleration can be indicated using the angle between

acceleration and the positive direction of axis, that is,
Example 1-1 The equation of motion of a particle is , the unit of , are , . Find
the path of motion, the velocity and the acceleration of the particle.

Solution Projecting the equation of motion onto the and axes, we have

Eliminating the parameter , yields:

y
From the definition of velocity, we have x

The magnitude of velocity is given by

4 2
𝑦 =− 𝑥
9
Fig. 1-5 Example 1-1
The angle between the velocity and the axis is
 From the definition of acceleration, we have

Example 1-2 A particle moves along an axis. The acceleration as a function of time
is . When , the particle moves through the origin point at a velocity of . Find the
equation of motion of this particle.
Solution The particle performs one dimensional motion. From the definition of
acceleration, we have

This equation is a differential one and we first separate different variables to different
sides

Then integrate both sides with the help of the initial conditions
Solving for the velocity as a function of time yields

Applying the definition of velocity into the above equation yields

Removing from the left side to the right side and substituting the initial conditions
into this equation yield
1-3 Circular Motion
1-3-1 Tangential Acceleration and Radial Acceleration of Circular Motion
 we focus on the more generalized circular motion in which both the direction
and the magnitude of the velocity change.
 Natural coordinate system: One coordinate axis is directed tangent to the
path at position, the other axis through position is directed towards the
center of the circle.
𝒂𝑡
 The component due to the change in direction is called 𝜑 𝒂
A
the normal acceleration This component is usually
symbolized 𝒂𝑛𝑅
O

Fig. 1-6 Circular motion

 The other component of the acceleration due to the change in magnitude of
the velocity is called the tangential acceleration. The tangential
acceleration is usually symbolized

 So the acceleration of a particle at a given position on the circle can be expressed

as

𝒂𝑡
A𝜑 𝒂
 The magnitude of the acceleration is
𝒂𝑛𝑅
O
The direction of the acceleration can be indicated by the
angle between the acceleration and velocity, that is

Fig. 1-6 Circular motion

1-3-2 Tangential Acceleration and Normal Acceleration of Motion in Two
Dimensions
 For a more generalized two-dimensional motion or three-dimensional motion

2
d𝑣 𝑣 𝒆𝑡
𝑎𝑡 = , 𝑎 𝑛=
d𝑡 𝜌
 Uniform motion along a straight line: . 𝒆𝑛
𝜌O
 One dimensional motion with constant acceleration: . .

Circle of curvature
 Uniform circular motion: Thg magnitude of is constant Fig. 1-7 Circle of curvature
and .
 Motion in two dimensions and three dimensions:
2
d𝑣 𝑣
𝒂=𝒂 𝑡 + 𝒂𝑛 = 𝒆𝑡 + 𝒆𝑛
d𝑡 𝜌
1-3-3 Angular Quantities to Describe the Circular Motion
 At a given instant , the particle is at position and the angle between the
radius and axis is called the angular position of the particle.
𝜃=𝜃 (𝑡 )
 Over this time interval, the particle, or the radius
connecting the origin point and the particle swept an ∆ 𝑠𝑡 + ∆ 𝑡
B
angle , which is called the angular displacement. At

 The angular velocity is defined to be the ratio of

∆ 𝜃R
angular displacement to the time interval . That is,
𝜃 x
O

 The angular acceleration is defined to be the ratio of the Fig. 1-8 Angular quantity
change in its angular velocity to the time interval
∆𝜔 d 𝜔
𝛼= lim =
∆ 𝑡→0 ∆ 𝑡 d𝑡
1-3-4 Relationship between Angular Quantity and Linear Quantity
 We can use either linear quantities (velocity, acceleration) or angular
quantities (angular velocity, angular acceleration) to describe the circular
motion of a particle.
∆ 𝑠=𝑟 ∆ 𝜃
 Using to divide the above equation and let approach ∆ 𝑠𝑡 + ∆ 𝑡
B
At
zero yield ∆ 𝜃R
𝜃 x
O

 Take the derivative of with respect to

time t on both sides, we have
Fig. 1-8 Angular quantity
d𝑣 d𝜔
=𝑟 𝑎 𝑡 =𝑟 𝛼
d𝑡 d𝑡
 Substituting into yields
Example 1-3 A particle is in circular motion of radius . Its equation of motion
is , where is a positive constant. Find: (1) The tangential acceleration and the
normal acceleration; (2) The acceleration ; (3) The value of time t when the
acceleration and the radius form an angle of ; (4) The number of rounds the
particle rotated when .
Solution From the relationship , we have

(1) , ;

(2) , the angle between and the tangential direction ;

(3) Let , we have ;

(4) In the equation of motion , let , we have , so the rounds the particle pass
through is
1-4 Newton’s Laws of Motion
1-4-1 Newton’s First Law
 In 1687, Newton pointed out in his famous scientific masterpiece
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy that any object keeps its
stationary state or state of moving at constant velocity until external force acts
on it and forces it to change the velocity. This statement is called Newton’s
first law of motion. It can also be expressed in a mathematical form:
When , constant vector
 Any object has the property of maintaining its state of motion, which is normally
called the inertia.
 Newton’s first law is also titled as the law of inertia.
1-4-2 Newton’s Second Law
 The product of mass and velocity is defined to be the linear momentum, or
simply momentum of the object:
 When a nonzero resultant force acts on an object, Newton’s second law
answers the question what happens to the object.
 It demonstrates that the time rate of change in the momentum of an object is
equal to the resultant external force acting on it. That is :

 When the speed of an object is much smaller than the speed of light (), the
mass of the object can be taken as a constant quantity that is independent
on the speed. So we have
When applying Newton’s second law, the following points should be stressed:
 Newton’s second law only applies to the motion of particles.
 Newton’s second law implies the independence of forces
(or superposition of forces).
𝑛

∑ 𝑭 𝑖 =𝑚 𝒂
𝑖=1
 Newton’s second law reveals the instantaneous relationship between the
resultant external force and the acceleration.
 Newton’s second law is expressed by a vector equation.
,
𝑛 𝑛
𝐹 𝑥 =∑ 𝐹 𝑖𝑥 , 𝐹 𝑦 =∑ 𝐹 𝑖𝑦
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
  When dealing with circular motion or even more generalized two-dimensional
motion, we sometimes use the natural coordinate system:
2
d𝑣 𝑣
𝐹 t =𝑚 𝑎 t=𝑚 , 𝐹 n=𝑚 𝑎 n=𝑚
d𝑡 𝜌
 Newton’s second law only holds in an inertial frame.

1-4-3 Newton’s Third Law

 If two objects interact, the force exerted by object 2 on object 1 is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by object 1 on object 2,
this principle is called Newton’s third law

 In reality, either force or can be labeled as the action or reaction force. They are
called a third-law force pair.
 The following points should be stressed:
 The action and reaction forces are a pair of forces, they exist together and
disappear together.
 The action force and reaction force actually act on different objects and they
cannot be cancelled.
 The action force and reaction force are of the same property.

1-4-4 Inertial Frame of Reference a

 The frame of reference in which Newton’s laws

of motion hold water is called the inertial frame
of reference, or simply inertial frame.
Otherwise, it is called the non-inertial frame of
reference. Fig. 1-9 A carriage moves with
acceleration .
 Suppose a reference frame moves in straight line with constant velocity
relative to an inertial frame . An object has the same acceleration relative to
both frame and , that is,

In an inertial reference frame, Newton’s second law holds, we have

And in classical mechanics, mass is a quantity independent on its state

of motion, so in the reference frame , we have

So, any reference frame that moves with constant velocity relative to an
inertial frame is itself an inertial frame.
1-4-5 Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion
we usually need to take the following steps when dealing with kinetics problems:

 To isolate the objects

 To draw free-body diagrams

 To set up an appropriate coordinate system

 To solve the component equations for the unknowns

Example 1-4 A thin rope runs over a pulley and

connects two blocks on its two ends of mass and ,
respectively. , as shown in Fig. 1-10. The masses of
the pulley and the rope are negligible, the rope is 𝑚1 𝒂
inextensible. Find the acceleration of the blocks and 𝑚2
the tension in the rope. Fig. 1-10 Example 1-4
Solution Take the pulley and the blocks as target objects respectively and
draw their free-body diagrams as shown in Fig. 1-11
(1) 𝑇
′
𝑇1 𝑇2
(2) 𝑎1
,
𝑎2 ′ ′
Solving (1) and (2) for and yields
𝑚1 𝑔 𝑚2 𝑔 𝑇 1 𝑇 2
Fig. 1-11 Example 1-4

From Newton’s third law, , , and the mass of the pulley is neglected, we have

It is easy to prove that,

Example 1-5 As shown in Fig. 1-12, a ball of mass is connected to one end
of a rope of length . The other end of the rope is fixed to the ceiling. First the
ball is pulled to the horizontal position and the rope is kept taut, then the ball
is released. Find the velocity of the ball and the tension in the rope when the
ball moves to the radius that makes an angle of below the horizontal
direction.
Solution As shown in Fig. 1-12, the ball is in the non-
uniform circular motion due to the gravitational force
and the tension from the rope. At any given instant, the 𝜃𝑙
component forms of Newton’s second law in the d 𝜃𝑻
natural coordinate axes are d𝑠
(1) 𝒗𝜃
mg
(2) Fig. 1-12 Example 1-5

Multiplying both sides of Eq. (1) with yields

d𝑣 d𝑠
𝑚𝑔 cos𝜃 d 𝑠=𝑚 d 𝑠= d 𝑣=𝑚𝑣 d 𝑣
d𝑡 d𝑡
 Integrating the above equation and considering the initial conditions
given by the problem yield
𝜃 𝑣

∫ 𝑔𝑙 cos 𝜃 d 𝜃=∫ 𝑣 d 𝑣
0 0
1 2
𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃 = 𝑣 , 𝑣=√ 2 𝑔𝑙 sin 𝜃
2
Substituting the expression of into Eq. (2) yields

Example 1-6 A skydiver falls from great height with

f
“spread eagle” style to maximize air drag as shown in O
Fig.1-13. As the falling speed increases, the air drag
increases in the form of ( is a constant). When the
increased air drag cancels the gravitational force of the y
mg
skydiver, the skydiver will fall with constant speed that is
Fig. 1-13 Example 1-6
called the terminal speed. Find the falling speed as a
function of time.
Solution As show in Fig. 1-13, we draw the free-body diagram of the
skydiver and apply the one dimensional Newton’s second law to the
skydiver, we have
2d𝑣
𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘𝑣 =𝑚
d𝑡
When , we have the terminal velocity represented as and

Rearranging the differential equation in order to separate different variables on

different sides of the equation
𝑚d 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑘
2
𝑣 −𝑣 =
2
= d𝑡
𝑣𝑇 − 𝑣 𝑚
𝑇 2 2
𝑘d 𝑡
 Integrating this equation and substituting the initial conditions into the
above equation, we have
𝑣 𝑡 𝑡
d𝑣 𝑘 𝑔
∫ 𝑣2 − 𝑣2 𝑚 ∫
= d 𝑡 = 2 ∫
𝑣𝑇 0
d𝑡
0 𝑇 0 () ()
60
Complete the integration and we have 50

( )
40
1 𝑣 𝑇 +𝑣 𝑔
ln = 2 𝑡 30
2 𝑣𝑇 𝑣𝑇 − 𝑣 𝑣𝑇 20
10
By some algebra, we come to 0 t (s)
−2 𝑔𝑡 0 5 10 15 20 25
𝑣𝑇 Fig. 1-14 Example 1-6
1 −𝑒
𝑣= −2 𝑔𝑡
𝑣𝑇 When ,
𝑣𝑇
1+𝑒
Suppose , and , then . Substituting these data into the expression of (t) leads to the
figure as shown in Fig. 1-14.
Thank you!