THE SILK HISTORY

Marie Boillat Vanden Stock and Aki Majola

Silk and its trade
October 2023
ECU44131-3 2023 Review Deck Assignment
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 2

Brief History and Cultural Significance of Silk (~3000BCE)

◦ Sericulture began in China around 3000BCE
• Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC – 256 BC) folk songs note the importance of silk
weaving in BCE China
• Silk weaving present from Shang Dynasty (1600 – 1405 BCE)

• Long history of importance predating economic trade.

• Earliest use was the wrapping of a dead body, 3630BCE
• Used to write early forms of newspapers

• Luxury textile & Symbol of status

• Peasants did not have the right to wear silk until the Qing Dynasty (1644–
1911)
• Key export commodity in shaping global trade networks
• While Silk is widely accepted to have originated from China there is
evidence of Silk existing in the Indus Civilisation (2800-1900BCE)
• Indus Civilisation was centred across the river networks of Pakistan
and Northern India, specifically the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river
systems.
• Evidence of silk in Nevasa, peninsular India, this brings the date of silk
outside of China back a millennium.
• Along with evidence of early silk outside of China, techniques such as
degumming and reeling were also observed, which were thought to be
Chinese trade secrets. (Good, Kenoyer and Meadow, 2009)
(Recreation of early silk newspaper, source)
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 3

Importance of Trade and Culture in the Before the Common Era

• High monetary value
• A skein of silk said to be worth up to 5 slaves and
one horse under the Zhou
• Key to the survival of nomadic Steppe tribes
• Given the value of silk the tributes paid out by the
Han allowed the tribes to survive
• Silk used as currency
• Civil servants paid with Silk rolls (Rafe De
Crespigny, 2007)
• Military compensation/rewards were often silk
• Key in China maintaining relations with Xiongnu
• China made annual fixed payments to the Xiongnu
• Silk was necessary for leaders as a sign of
power/status
• Circulation of silk in Xiongnu opened up trade
avenues toward the west
• These payments made 1/3 of the Han government
payroll/ 7% of the empire’s payroll. (Barfield 2001,
237 as cited in Barisitz, 2017) (Scheidel, 2013)
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 4

Early Silk Trade and The Establishment of The Silk Roads 114BCE

• “Silk Road” term coined by Von Richthofen in the 1870s

• Refers to an interconnected network of trade
networks rather than a singular road (Williams,
2014).
• Silk road network began ~114 BCE, giving China a
monopoly over production, thus contributing a
significant amount to Han Dynasty economic success.
• This period marked the first heyday of the Silk Road
and large transcontinental demand for the
commodity.
• The Silk Roads were encapsulated by high-value, low-
weight goods given the cost of transportation
• These values were embodied by silk
• Silk trade may have started even earlier around 200BCE
• Xiongnu reexported silk extorted from China, this
could be seen as the true beginning of the SR (Barfield
1989,47; Waugh 2002, 4)

Map of Silk Road beginnings, Source: (Barisitz, 2017))

Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 5

Role of Silk in Chinese Prosperity and Development of The Silk Road

• The Tang Dynasty brought a second heyday of
prosperity to the overland silk route
• Growth in the western regions of China along with
the growth of settlements along the Silk Road
• This period coincided with the Abbasid rise, resulting
in a confrontation with the Tang at Talas in 751CE
• Muslim victory here had a significant impact on the
silk trade and Silk Road
• This led to a partial closure of the overland silk
route, until the rise of the Mongols
• These events spurred a population shift toward the
Yellow and Yangtze Rivers, leading to increased
prominence in the maritime silk trade.
• The rise of the Mongol empire and Pax Mongolia meant
that it was safer than ever to transport silk across the
Steppe
• This resulted in large amounts of raw silk in Europe
and coincided with the Commercial Revolution in
Europe

(Map of Tang Dynasty Showing westward expansion, source)

Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 6

Spread outside of China

Sericulture: The cultivation of silkworms and production of raw silk from
cocoons.
• The large demand and volume of silk imports from China to regions of Silk Manufacturing: Processing raw silk into a wide range of silk-based
Persia and Byzantium led them to seek knowledge of sericulture.
products, including fabrics and textiles.
• Silk was said to be more than its weight in gold in Rome
• Trade disruptions such as the collapse of the Han (220CE), Parthians
(227CE) and Kushan (330CE)
• Diffusion of silk production occurred between 400-600 CE and silk
production became prominent across the Mediterranean.
• The establishment of production centres in Byzantium and Persia meant
an effective end to the Chinese silk monopoly, as silk became available
from other sources.
• Knowledge of Chinese silk making was gradually passed down through
trade routes, with specific details lost in time we are left with explanations
in the form of legends.
• It's said the Central Asian kingdom of Khotan (Hotan, China today)
acquired knowledge of Chinese sericulture when a Chinese princess
married the King and brought silkworms in her hair mid 100BCE.
From that, sericulture was established in Khotan and it became a
prolific silk producer. Khotan may also be responsible for introducing
Chinese sericulture around Central Asia and Europe.
• Another explanation for diffusion in Europe is that 2 monks
smuggled silk cocoons in their canes and brought them back
westward, and presented them in Constantinople ~552CE.
• While silk exportation to Western Europe may have diminished this was
made up by Chinese trade with the Sogdians and Indians.
• While trade between India and China was substantial, Indians were aware (Ma, 2019)
of the origins of silk in comparison to Europe, especially given that
silkworms are also indigenous to the region.
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 7

Third and Final Heyday of the Silk Road

Regions under Pax Mongolica, showing the East

Pax Mongolia (1245-1324)
to West control of the Mongols, source
• The expanse of the Mongol Empire meant that trade could be
conducted uninterrupted between Europe and South & East Asia.
• This period was Pax Mongolica (1245–1345)
• Silk was transported across Eurasia in large amounts, cheap Chinese
raw silk was said to have arrived in Europe in “unlimited amounts”.
• The Mongol occupancy furthered the adoption of paper money as well
as eliminating trade barriers which made for more efficient trade along
The Silk Road.
• Mongols controlled the silk routes between East and West. As the result
of a unitary system, trade flourished between the continents
• This furthered commodity trade across the Eurasian continent. High-
quality German and French linen were traded for Chinese silks, and the
price difference was significant enough to be a benefit to the travelling
European merchants (Robert Sabatino Lopez, 2005).
• Following the collapse of the Mongol Empire China was unified by the
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), which evoked the problem of controlling
northern territories (MA, 2019).
• Conflicts in Central Asia brought further disruptions to the silk
trade round the 15th and E16th
• Silk fabrics produced in the Yangtze moved through Siberia and areas
under Russian control. Success of this China-Russia commerce hinge on
relatively peaceful conditions and lack of banditry (Rossabi, 2014)
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 8

Late Trade between the Far West and Far East

(Lee-Whitman, 1982)
• Intensification of the maritime silk trade, particularly to
Britain Date of Ship Return Total Silk Orders
• Facilitated by the British East India Company
• Approx. 60,000 orders of silk placed between Britain
1723 19,245
and China from the early to mid 18th century 1729 18,035
• Tremendous demand for Chinese silks prompted trade
between China and England from the 17th to 18th Century. 1733 300
• This trade was facilitated by the British East India
Company (granted Royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth 1734 1,400
to conduct trade in the East)
• The scale of trade was also used to protect British 1735 14,350
manufacturers as a large amount of the trade was
intended for re-export. 1736 -
• This helped to reinforce globalisation
• Established maritime trade routes from East to West 1737 250
and brought the silks to a wider European market
• Factories established in Canton (Modern-day
1739 223
Guangzhou), had significant impacts on the standard 1751 4,830
of the note-taking, due to differing levels of
meticulousness. 1753 1,800
* Inconsistencies in record taking ~1730s –
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 9

Challenges and Innovations in Silk Industrialisation 19th - 20thC

• The Industrial Revolution brought new improvements to silk production
• The Jacquard Loom (1801) revolutionised the way silk was
manufactured
• Steam power helped propel France and North Italy to major silk
producers
• Silkworm disease called Perbrine saw the Silk Industry in Europe crumble
from 1855
• Average growth decline of 46.55% in France from 1853-55, 71.43%
total decline
• Avg decline of 13.45% in Italy from 1853-63, near 75% total decline
• Excess demands were met with the aforementioned British reexportation
of Chinese silks
• Opening of the Suez Canal gave the French an Easier route to the west
than England, causing Japan and China to account for over half of
French Imports and the decline of British reexports.
• Given the flow of silk from East to West, the technology flowed in the
opposite direction, seeing China’s share of machine-reeled silk go from
~0% in 1870s to ~50% by 1900 and >90% by 1915.
• By the early 1910s the US had risen to prominence as a silk manufacturer
• The prominence of American silk came of the back of raw silk imports
from Japan
• There existed a parallel between Japan’s raw silk dominance and US
production, as a result of large-scale market and technology
integration.
• Meiji era Japan placed emphasis on the quality of sericulture, pushing for (Ma, 1996)
modernisation (Ma, 1996) and resulting in dominance of raw silk exports.
 Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 10

Contemporary Silk Trade

• The preceding centuries of trade have shaped the current climate of global
silk trade
• Trade routes preferences and luxury uses have transcended centuries to
the modern day.
• The large influence of silk in China, Italy & Central Asia points to the fact
that culture and traditions shape historic economies and remain intertwined
through urbanisation and economic advancement.
• Silk remains popular in traditional centres of production for the same
reasons as the past 2,000 years, namely luxury, status and quality.
• Italy accounts for around 40% of global silk usage, which aligns with
historic trends and the Italian reputation as a modern-day fashion
powerhouse.
• The biggest change in the silk trade in the modern day is the demand for
ethical sourcing and environmental concerns pertaining to the
manufacturing of textiles.
• Silk production can be very energy and water-intensive which raise
concerns for the climate (Astoul, 2023). Additionally, it raises ethical
concerns regarding the killing of silkworms and use of child labour.
• Alternatives such as “peace”/ahimsa silk have emerged as alternatives as
moths are allowed to fly away before their cocoons are boiled.
• Environmentally friendly options such as lotus silk, which is made from
lotus flowers, come as vegan-friendly options while reducing water
usage in the process.
• Silk has also remained a large source of labour and employment, particularly (trendeconomy.com, 2023)
in South Asia, employing ~8 million people in India alone (Zipdo, 2023)
• Increasingly, scientists have been working on synthetic materials and finding
new ways to produce silk and silk related materials.
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 11

Silk production – from worm to fabric

Silkworm rearing
= the worms are fed, protected and kept at the right temperature until they
reach adulthood

Coconification
= the worms begin to spin their cocoons and use their saliva to solidify them +
the cocoons are finally picked and sorted according to their quality

Silk harvesting
= the cocoons are stripped of their worms and then spun (usually manually
using silk combs, silk reels or husking machines) to obtain silk thread

Spinning
= the threads are grouped together to create thicker threads. This stage can be
carried out by hand or with a machine

Weaving
= combining yarns to make fabric (manually or mechanically) to produce
garments, accessories or decorations

Finishing
https://textilelearner.net/silk-fiber-types-properties/
= the parts are then checked and dyed if necessary
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 12

Different types of silk are produced throughout the world

The most famous one:
• Mulberry Silk (Bombyx mori)
• Produced by the mulberry silkworm
• Mostly in China and India
• Very fine and silky  mostly used for des vêtements, des accessoires et des tissus d'ameublement
• Tussah Silk (Antheraea pernyi & Antheraea mylitta)
• Produced by the tussah silkworm
• In ???
• Thicker and rougher used to make carpets, wall hangings and other furnishing items
• Muga Silk
• Produced by Antheraea assamensis
• In the north-east of India
• Highly resistant to wear and fading  used to make traditional clothing such as saris
• Silkworm Silk
• Made with several different species of silkworms
• In Asia and Latin-America
• Thick and very resistant  manufacture of thick fabrics, such as tent fabrics or carpets
• Eri Silk
• Produced by the species Philosamia ricini
• In India and Burma
• Softer, warmer and lighter than the others  used for products such as duvets, homewear and children's
clothing

All of these silk varieties have unique characteristics, and each is used for specific applications depending on their
properties.
 Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 13

China, India and Vietnam – The biggest producers in the World and their
characteristics
• produced in 50 countries worldwide, including 14 in Silk production (in tonnes)
Asia 140000

China - the first producer

120000
• China is considered to be the cradle of silk creation and the biggest
producer in the entire world with around 136,000 tons of silk
100000
produced per year. Even if it is the most productive country in the
world, it represents only a tiny fraction of China's GDP, which stood
at €17,174,722m (in 2022). This silk is used mainly for the creation of 80000
textiles and in the medical sector. Silk and the silk trade have played a
major role in China's development, bringing economic prosperity and 60000
helping to promote its culture and assert its national identity. This can
be verified by a number of indexes, such as the human development 40000
coefficient, which stands at 0.758, representing a high level of
development. 20000

Italy – the European producer 0

• Italy may not be one of the world's biggest producers, but at

n
am
a

ea
nd

n
an

il
in

di

Ira

ta
ez

or
la

st
Ch

tn
In

is
European level it is the most important. In 2019, it produced 80% of

Br

K
ai

ki
ie

ik
Th

th
be
V

dj
European silk, i.e. 12 tonnes (in 2010). This industry has only a small

or
uz

Ta
N
O
impact on Italy's GDP, equivalent to USD 1.99 trillion. The fact that
the country has adapted to its needs is a clear indication of its level of in 2000 in 2010 in 2019
development, with a Human Development Index of 0.892. Source: Atlasocio
 Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 14

China, India and Vietnam – The biggest producers in the World and their
characteristics
India – the second producer
• With a production of around 30,000 tons/year, India is the
second producer in the world. India was also closely linked to
the silk trade. Silk has great cultural and traditional significance,
but it is also a vital component of India's economy. Silk has
created many jobs and generated large profits for the country,
enabling it to achieve a GDP of €3,213,281 million (in 2022) and a
human development index of 0.645 (which can be considered a
medium to high level).

Vietnam – the third producer

• The third producer, with a production of 1778 tons/ year is
Vietnam. Silk has a major impact on this country and its
development (human index indicator = 0.704, which is quite
good compared to other Asian countries) as it traditionally
allows traditions to be passed on, but it has little impact on the
country's GDP, which is worth €385.673 million (in 2022).

Source: Mordor Intelligence

Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 15

Silk, a product used throughout the World – the biggest importers/

consummers
• China
 China, as the largest producer, is also the largest consumer of silk. This is due to the cultural importance of
silk in the country, as well as its size and population of 1.412 billion in 2021.
• United-States
 One of the world’s largest importers of silk garments and interior decoration fabrics and accessories (most of these
products are produced in China). To give an idea, these imports represented 2 trillion dollars (in 1997).
• India
 India is relatively similar to China. With a population of 1.408 billion, India is a major consumer of silk, but not as
important as the United States.
• Italy
 Europe's biggest importers with 3,200 tonnes of silk imported each year, mainly for its fashion industry
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 16

The Economy of the silk today – Evolution of the price

• Silk is currently 20x more expensive than cotton and represent 0.2% of
the textile industry
• In 2023, the silk yarn market is estimated at USD 39.40 billion 
expected to reach USD 45.70 billion by 2028 Currency Inconvertibility and Transfer Restriction Risk

• Silk prices can change for a number of reasons: weather conditions that
affect worm growth and silk quality, fluctuations in raw materials and
demand (linked to trends), technological developments, international
events and pandemics.
• Those impacts can be measured with the climate and political risk
indice
• This index is used to assess the impact of climate and political risks in different
countries (a short- and medium- to long-term view)
• China = 1 & 2, India = 2 & 3, Vietnam = 2 & 4, Thailand = 2 & 3  shows that
these countries are equally affected by climate and political risks
• Example of a real case and their impact: From low in green to very high in burgundy
• The COVID-19 pandemic
• 53.06% of companies expected their operating income to fall by at least 10%
by 2020  26.53% = a fall of between 10 and 30% & 26.53% = a fall of more
than 30%
• The causes = falling demand, closure of factories and supply chains,
changing consumer preferences and fluctuating production costs
Source: Credendo
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 17

The impact of the silk trade on Society

Silk has played a key role in the development of trade and, more importantly,
globalisation. Thanks to silk, the Silk Road has developed, enabling different parts of the
world to connect and trade.

This knowledge has had a number of impacts:

• Economic
• has been instrumental in the economic development of countries such as China, India and Vietnam
• GDP has improved, not because it accounts for a large proportion of income, but because it has
improved living conditions for the poor.
• Social
• The silk trade has enabled many cultures to survive over the years, such as the Chinese and Indians, who
use silk for their ceremonial dress and sacred fabrics.
• Technological
• Silk has also enabled the development of new technologies. Although a large part of the silk production
process still has to be carried out manually, many machines are currently being developed to automate
the process.
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 18

The Ecological Impact

2 stages of the silk trade need to be taken into account:
1 - Production
As silk is produced from glass, it has to be kept in greenhouses. These greenhouses are extremely energy-
intensive, as they have to maintain a constant temperature level. In addition, numerous chemicals are
used both to spin the silk and to dye it. The use of water is also a point to be taken into account, as it is
used for production.

2 – Transport
Silk is mainly produced in Asia, but consumed all over the world, so it needs to be transported. All these
journeys produce huge amounts of CO2.

The silk trade, like other industries, is currently undergoing a phase of change and is trying to
reduce its impact on the planet. To achieve this, a number of changes have been implemented,
such as eco-friendly dyes, new regulations, sustainable sericulture, etc. These changes have led
to the development of « organic » silk. These changes open up many possibilities for the future.
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 19

What is the relationship between Silk and Financial systems?

• Given that silk was utilised as a store of value (Scheidel, 2008) and used as payment, the relationship
between the evolution of silk and the evolution of prevailing monetary systems is an interesting avenue
for research.
• Has the cultural and economic significance of the commodity played a defining role in the direction of Chinese monetary
• The development of the Silk Roads stands to show the profound economic importance Silk has had in
the way historical economics has been conducted.
• By taking a look at the aggregate amounts of spending from periods where silk was used as currency to
the following eras in which currency was adopted, we can try to synthesise the growth of financial
integration and development of the systems in use.
• In addition the differences across Eurasia would help us to understand the degree to which the culture of silk plays a role,
both as a monetary tool and a factor of a financial system.
• In this, it would be helpful to compare silk to other global commodities as a litmus test for what can
effectively evolve a region’s financial trajectory.
• Panel data can be used to compare commodity values and financial indicators in different countries over
time.
• Additionally, time series data can be used to evaluate the changes in the commodity over time with respect to other
macroeconomic factors.
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 20

Can the development of alternative silks revolutionise textile, engineering

and biomedical fields?
• The prevalence of silk from silkworms has presented the desire to harvest silk from spiders (Kluge et
al., 2008).
• Spider silk is desirable for multiple factors such as its strength and flexibility, being able to stretch 40% of its original
length (www.databridgemarketresearch.com, 2021).
• The use of spider silk brings the potential for use in the biomedical field, which could be used for the
purpose of cell remodelling.
• Tensile strength comparable to steel and Kevlar while being less dense thus making it heavier pound for pound (Wu,
2020).
• Given the properties of silk it would be interesting to see the progression of usage in both consumerist
and scientific scenarios and how this may displace/affect existing silk markets/producers.
• The economic viability of the material is also called into question given the difficulty of extracting silk from spiders and
synthesising DNA to produce synthetics.
• Economic analysis in conjecture with biomedical and engineering advancements would give us a
better timeline of technological integration in society while giving an insight into the potential in the
expansion of the silk industry.
• Research could utilise an approach such as diff-in-diff to analyse the impact the adoption of alternative
silk would have in medical fields as opposed to existing technologies.
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 21

Appendix
• Section 1:
• Books read/referenced:

• Reference list
• Barisitz, S. (2017). Central Asia and the Silk Road. Springer.
• Findlay, R. and O’rourke, K.H. (2007). Power and plenty : trade, war, and the world economy in the second millennium. Princeton, N.J. ; Woodstock:
Princeton University Press.
• Foltz, R. (2010). Religions of the Silk Road : overland trade and cultural exchange from antiquity to the fifteenth century. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
• Liu, X. (2010). The Silk Road in world history. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.
• Ma, D. (2017). Textiles in the Pacific, 1500–1900. Routledge.
• Rafe de Crespigny (2006). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD). BRILL.
• Robert Sabatino Lopez (2005). The commercial revolution of the Middle Ages : 950-1350. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pess.
• Rossabi, M. (2014). 7. The ‘Decline’ of the Central Asian Caravan Trade. BRILL eBooks, Brill, pp.201–220. doi:https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004285293_009.
• Thomas Jefferson Barfield (1989). The Perilous Frontier. Blackwell.
• Williams, T. (2014). The Silk Roads: an ICOMOS Thematic Study. [online] Available at:
https://www.icomos.org/images/mediatheque/ICOMOS_WHThematicStudy_SilkRoads_final_lv_201406.pdf.
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 22

Appendix
• Section 2:
• Articles read/referenced:
• Astoul, E. (2023). Silk: How Ethical And Sustainable Is It? (& Better Alternatives To Choose Instead). [online] Sustainably Chic. Available at: https://www.sustainably-chic.com/blog/what-is-silk.
• GOOD, I.L., KENOYER, J.M. and MEADOW, R.H. (2009). NEW EVIDENCE FOR EARLY SILK IN THE INDUS CIVILIZATION. Archaeometry, 51(3), pp.457–466. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00454.x.
• Hu, X., Vasanthavada, K., Kohler, K., McNary, S., Moore, A.M.F. and Vierra, C.A. (2006). Molecular mechanisms of spider silk. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, [online] 63(17), pp.1986–1999. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-006-6090-y.
• Kluge, J.A., Rabotyagova, O., Leisk, G.G. and Kaplan, D.L. (2008). Spider silks and their applications. Trends in Biotechnology, [online] 26(5), pp.244–251. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.02.006.
• Lee-Whitman, L. (1982). The Silk Trade: Chinese Silks and the British East India Company. Winterthur Portfolio, [online] 17(1), pp.21–41. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1180762.
• Levi, S. (1999). India, Russia and the Eighteenth-Century Transformation of the Central Asian Caravan Trade. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, [online] 42(4), pp.519–548. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3632605 [Accessed 27
Oct. 2023].
• Ma, D. (1996). The Modern Silk Road: The Global Raw-Silk Market, 1850-1930. The Journal of Economic History, [online] 56(2), pp.330–355. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2123969.
• Scheidel, W. (2005). REAL SLAVE PRICES AND THE RELATIVE COST OF SLAVE LABOR IN THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD. Ancient Society, [online] 35, pp.1–17. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/44079857.pdf.
• Scheidel, W. (2008). The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1096440.
• Scheidel, W. (2013). Slavery and Forced Labor in Early China and the Roman World. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2242322.
• trendeconomy.com. (2023). Silk | Imports and Exports | 2022. [online] Available at: https://trendeconomy.com/data/commodity_h2/50.
• Vainker, S. and Talbot, L. (2005). Review of Chinese Silk: A Cultural History. Studies in the Decorative Arts, [online] 12(2), pp.143–147. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40663140 [Accessed 27 Oct. 2023].
• Wu, K.J. (2020). Spider Silk Is Stronger Than Steel. It Also Assembles Itself. The New York Times. [online] 4 Nov. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/04/science/spider-silk-web-self-assembly.html#:~:text=Pound%20for%20pound%2C%20spider
%20silk.
• www.databridgemarketresearch.com. (2021). Synthetic Spider Silk Market – Global Industry Trends and Forecast to 2028 | Data Bridge Market Research. [online] Available at: https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/global-synthetic-spider-silk-market.
• www.databridgemarketresearch.com. (2023). Silk Market Size, Share, Price, Analysis, Trends, & Forecast by 2028. [online] Available at: https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/global-silk-market.
• Zheng, X. and Jia, L. (2017). An Empirical Study on the Economic Effect of Financial Cooperation among Countries of the ‘Silk Road Economic Belt’. Engineering Economics, 28(5). doi:https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.ee.28.5.19189.
• Classement des États du monde par production de soie (grège). (s. d.). Atlasocio.com. https://atlasocio.com/classements/economie/agriculture/classement-etats-par-production-soie-grege-monde.php#:~:text=Les%20principaux%20%C3%89tats%20producteurs
%20de,Sud%2C%20la%20Turquie%20et%20Madagascar.
• Kiron, M. I. (2021, 29 avril). Silk fiber : types, properties, manufacturing process and uses. Textile Learner. https://textilelearner.net/silk-fiber-types-properties/#google_vignette
• Silk Yarn Market Insights. (s. d.). https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/silk-yarn-market
•
Silk | Marie Boillat Vanden Stock & Aki Majola | Michaelmas Term 2023 23

Appendix
• Section 3
• Other relevant articles:

• Cizakca, M. (1980). Price History and the Bursa Silk Industry: A Study in Ottoman Industrial Decline, 1550-1650. The Journal of Economic History,

[online] 40(3), pp.533–550. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2120752.

• Hertz, G.B. (1909). The English Silk Industry in the Eighteenth Century. The English Historical Review, [online] 24(96), pp.710–727. Available at:

https://www.jstor.org/stable/550443 [Accessed 19 Apr. 2023].

• History Forum. (2017). Price of important thing and labour in Ancient Times. [online] Available at: https://historum.com/t/price-of-important-thing-

and-labour-in-ancient-times.128145/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2023].

• Lopez, R.S. (1945). Silk Industry in the Byzantine Empire. Speculum, 20(1), pp.1–42. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2851187.

• McEvedy, C. (1988). The Bubonic Plague. Scientific American, [online] 258(2), pp.118–123. Available at:

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24988987.pdf.
• Wilfred (2018). The Periplus of the Erythræan Sea; Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean. Franklin Classics.

• www.historyofinformation.com. (n.d.). Defeat at Battle of the Talas River Marks the End of Tang Westward Historical Expansion : History of

Information. [online] Available at: https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?entryid=229 [Accessed 27 Oct. 2023].

• Admin. (2023, 1 mars). Country risk. Credendo. https://credendo.com/en/country-risk