SUMEYA SECONDARY AND

PREPARATORY SCHOOL
BIOLOGY SHORT NOTE GRADE 10th .
 Science
•Science-is the study of the world,
-It
is the fact of knowing something,

-it is understanding of the truth.

•SCIENCE IS divided in to two :
•1. Natural science-Eg. Biology, Chemistry, Physics…..
•2.Social science: Eg. History, Geography, Civics…
•So Biology is the branch of natural science
 UNIT ONE
•BIOTECHNOLOGY
•The word of biology-comes from two Greek
words. 1.Bio- means life ,2. Logus- means study.
•So BIOLOGY –is the branch of natural science that
study about life or living things.
• BIOTECHNOLOGY-IS THE USE OF
MICROORGANISMS to make things that people
want, often involving industrial production.
 Cont…
•BIOTECNOLOGY-is based on microbiology ,
why? Because , microbiology: is the branch of
biology which study microorganisms such as
bacteria, viruses, some fungi, protozoa.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY:

•Why we learn biotechnology?

•Biotechnology: is important to solve practical
problems in:
•1. Farming- is to produce crop plants and Animals
•2. Food production
•3. Medicine
•4. Energy (fuel) production
•5. Environmental protection and Biodiversity
conservation
 TYPES OF APPLICATION OF BIOTECNOLOGY

•1. Traditional and 2.New application of biotechnology

•1.Traditional application of biotechnology:
•• Biotechnology has been used for thousands of years
to make bread, alcoholic drinks, Tej, Tela, Wine and
fermented food products such as yoghurt and cheese.
•In traditional application of biotechnology YEAST
and some group of BACTERIA are widely used.
 yeast
•YEAST: Is used for in production of: Brewing beer, making wine,
bread, Tej, Tela.
• One of the most useful micro-organisms is yeast.
The yeasts are single-
celled organisms. Each yeast cell has a nucleus, cytoplasm and a
membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
The main way in
which yeasts reproduce is by asexual budding – splitting into two,
to form new yeast cells. Just one gram of yeast contains about 25
billion cells!
When yeasts have plenty of oxygen, they respire aerobically,
breaking down sugar to provide energy for the cells, and producing
water and carbon dioxide as waste products.
 Cont…
•But yeasts are useful because they can also respire
anaerobically in absence of oxygen.
When yeast cells break down sugar in the absence of
oxygen, they produce ethanol
(commonly referred to as alcohol) and carbon dioxide as
waste products.
•Aerobic respiration provides more energy than anaerobic
respiration, allowing yeast cells to grow and reproduce.
•The anaerobic respiration of yeast is sometimes referred to as
fermentation which produce ethanol.
 Injera needs yeast
• When you make injera, grind your te ff or
barley and then add water.
Mix it well and leave the dough at room
temperature for about two days. Natural yeasts
start to grow and respire in the dough. At first
the yeast respires aerobically, although this
may change to anaerobic respiration. The yeast
produces carbon dioxide, making the mix rise
a little and giving it a tangy flavou
 CONT…
•When you cook the mixture, the bubbles of gas
expand in the high temperature, giving Injera its
typical texture, which is so good for soaking up
the food. The yeasts are killed during the
cooking process.
 Making alcoholic drinks
• 1.When you make tej, you need honey, water and
gesho leaf or gesho stick. Gesho gives a bitter edge to
the brew, and wild yeasts found on the plant start the
fermentation going.The yeasts use the honey as a
source of food.
2.In contrast, winemaking uses natural sugar, found in
fruit such as grapes, as the energy source for the yeast.
Remember: yeast can respire aerobically in bread
making, but must respire anaerobically to make
alcoholic drinks.
 Food production using bacteria

•Eg. Making of yoghurt (Irgo) and cheese.

1.Making yoghurt (irgo)
-Traditionally, yoghurt is fermented whole milk.

• Yoghurt is formed by the action of bacteria on the lactose (milk sugar) in

the milk.
-To make yoghurt, you add a starter culture of the right kind of bacteria
to warm milk. -Often this starter
culture is just a small amount of yoghurt you have already made.
-The mixture needs to be warm so
the bacteria begin to grow, reproduce and ferment.
-As the bacteria break down the lactose in the milk, they
produce lactic acid, which gives the -yoghurt its sharp, tangy taste.
 Contn…
• . This is known as lactic fermentation.
-The lactic acid produced
by the bacteria causes the milk to clot and solidify into
yoghurt.
-The action of the bacteria also gives the yoghurt a
smooth, thick texture. -
Once the yoghurt forming bacteria have worked on the
milk, they also help prevent the growth of other
bacteria that normally send the milk bad.
-Yoghurt, if it is kept cool,
will last almost three weeks before it goes bad.
 2.Cheese making
•Much lactic acid is produced and it forms
much more solid curd than yoghurt.
•Enzymes-are added to increase separation of
milk.
•The milk separates in to curd and whey.
• -Curds-are the solid part of milk-is cheese.
• -Whey(aguat)- is the liquid part of milk,
which is separated from curd
Cont…
 Contn…
•Like yoghurt making, cheese making depends on the
reactions of bacteria with milk changing the texture
and taste, and also preserving the milk. Just as in yoghurt
making, you add a starter culture of bacteria to warm
milk. The difference is in the type of bacteria added. The
bacteria in cheese making also convert lactose to lactic
acid, but they make much more lactic acid.
As a result, the
solid part (curds) is much more solid than in yoghurt
 1.2 New applications of biotechnology

• By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Identify new applications of biotechnology in
agriculture, food production, medicine and
energy production.
Some new applications of biotechnology also
take place in an industrial setting.
one of the most important new areas
of biotechnology is – genetic engineering (also
known as genetic modifcation).
 Choose the best
•1. Which of the following statements about biotechnology is not true?
A. Biotechnology is the use of micro-organisms to make things that people want.
B. Biotechnology is a new, modern concept. C. Biotechnology is based on
microbiology.
D. Biotechnology is one of the fastest-growing industries in the world.
2. How many cells does one gram of yeast contain?
A. about 10 million B. 25 million C. 4000 D. about 25 billion
• 3. Which two of the following are the waste products of anaerobic respiration in
yeast?
A. sugar B. carbon dioxide C. water D. ethanol
4. Which of the following statements about lactic fermentation is not true?
A. It gives yoghurt its sharp, tangy taste. B. It gives yoghurt a smooth, thick
texture.
C. It means the yoghurt will only last a few days.
D. It causes the milk to clot and solidify into yoghurt.
 1.What is genetic engineering?
•• In genetic engineering, desirable genes from one organism
can be ‘cut out’ using enzymes and transferred to the cells of
bacteria, animals and plants
•genetic engineering/genetic modification process of
inserting new genetic information into existing cells in order
to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing
its characteristics
•Micro-organisms can be grown on a large scale in vessels
known as fermenters, to make useful products such as
antibiotics.
Contn…
 Contn…
2. In agriculture biotechnology
 is used to develop better crops and livestock, and to develop plants
that contain their own pesticide.
 In food it is used in many ways: including to break down starch to
form useful sugar syrups.
 to improve the production of beers and other fermented products;
and to develop new food stuffs.
3• In medicine biotechnology is used to make drugs and medicines.
• Eg the 1st antibiotic called penicillin which is made by Alexander
Fileming in 1928
 4.ENERGY PRODUCTION
Biotechnology is important in producing new forms of fuel to
provide us with energy.
 Energy produced by BT-used for:
•-Using most renewable forms of energy sources.
•-Reducing rate of deforestation
 BT-involves production of BIOGAS & BIOFUEL.
•Biogas-is a flammable mixture of gases formed when bacteria
break down plant material or waste production of Animals in
anaerobic condition.
• The major components of biogas is methane.
 Contn…
Percentage in the mixture
Components by volume

Methane 50–80

Carbon dioxide 15–45

Water 5
Hydrogen sulphide 0–3
Other gases including
0–1
hydrogen
 Biogas
• Biogas – mainly methane – can be produced by
anaerobic fermentation of a wide range of plant
products and waste materials that contain
carbohydrates.
•The use of biogas technology
•1.Pollution control-b/c it digest waste materials.
• 2.Fertilizers-digest waste material & releases
plant nutrients such as N2, P….
 Ethanol
• Ethanol-based fuels can be produced by the anaerobic
fermentation of sugar cane juices and from glucose
derived from maize starch by the action of the enzyme
carbohydrase which break down charbohydrate.
•-the sugars are broken down in completely to give
ethanol & water-which extract ethanol from the
products of fermentation by DISTLATION &you can
use it in the cars as a fuel.
 Advantage of ethanol as a fuel:

•It does not produce TOXIC gases when it burns b/c its
burn-is carbon neutral.
•It can mix with petroleum & used for cars.
•Dis advantage of using ethanol as a fuel:
•It take a lot of plant material, b/c it produce from
plants.
-It require large space & sustainable climate to grow.
 UNIT TWO

•HEREDITY
•Heredity: is the transition of trait from parents to child
during sexual reproduction through male and female
gamete to form generation to generation
•The science that study heredity or inheritance is called
Genetics
•The word of genetics comes from Greek word “ginno”-
means give birth. So it is the
science of genes, heredity and variation of organisms.
 Cell division
Cell division: Cells are structural and
functional unit of life.
•Cells are reproduce by cell division
 Cell division is important for:-
•enable multi-cellular organisms to grow
•to reproduce damaged cells
•to replace worn out cells
 NUCLEUS
 Eukaryotic cells are contain nucleus which is
control room of the cell.
•The nucleus contains all the plans for making a
new cell, the information needed to build a
whole new animal , plant, bacterium or fungi…
Contn…
 Contn..
•In side of the NUCLEUS-every cell there are thread
like structure that contain genetic information are
called CHROMOSOMES-which is passed from parents
to child.
•The chromosomes-are made up of DNA(Deoxy
ribonucleic Acid)-which is chemical carries the
instructions needed to make all the proteins in the cells.
•These proteins are enzymes these are control all the
production of all other chemicals that make up the body.
 Contn…
A cell of a given species of an organisms
contain fixed number of chromosomes in the
nucleus and different type of organism have
different type of chromosomes
 Contn…
Organism No of chrom No of chro in pair
•Human 46 23-pair
•Fern 1200 600-pair
•Tomatoes 24 12-pair
•Elephant 56 28-pair
Zygote- inherit half of chromosomes, from
mother and half of from Father.
 Contn…
Chromosomes-come in pairs known as
homologous pair.
-eg. human have 46-chromosome which appear
in 23-homologous pair.
Scientists can photograph the chromosomes,
when they are dividing and arrange them in
pairs to make special picture known as a
karyotype- which is a photograph of
chromosomes in dividing and arranged in pairs.
 Contn…
Human karyotypes has 23-pairs of
chromosome in which 22-pairs of the
chromosomes are called autosomes-means
chromosome other than sex-chromosome.
The remaining 1-pair of chromosomes are sex-
chromosome, namely x and y –chromosomes.
 Contn…
Generally, 22-pairs of chromosomes are:
•Control the way you like and the way body
work.
•Both chromosomes have the same size,
shape(xx)
 Contn…
 But 1-pair of chromosomes are:-
•Are sex-chromosome, determine sex of boy and
girl.
•A girls-have a pair of two similar x or (xx).
•BOYS –have one-x –chromosome and much
smallest-y- chromosome.
•so x and y –chromosomes are called sex
chromosomes, because they determine whether
male or female.
•Eg. Father (xy) Mother (xx)
 Contn…
1.If x chromosome from Father join with x-
chromosome from Mother which create xx-
which is female.
•2If y- chromosome from Father join with x-
chromosome from Mother which create xy -
which is male.
 CHROMOSOME, DNA ANG GENE

 A chromosome is a structure, in the nucleus of a

cell, consisting of genes.
Chromosomes are made up of the
genetic material DNA in a DNA–protein complex.
• Chromosomes contain genes that carry genetic
information about an individual, which is passed on
from one generation to another.
DNA is the genetic material contained in the
nucleus. It is a long molecule made up of two
strands twisted together to make a double helix.
 Contn…
The DNA molecule is made up of many smaller
units called nucleotides that are joined
together.
Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar,
phosphate and one of the four bases
(adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine).
 Contn…
 In DNA there are four different bases –these are
Adenine(A), Guanine(G),Cytosine(C) and
Thymine(T).
I,purine-are double –ring structure eg. A and G.

II,Pyramidine-single ring structure eg.C and T

The
bases link the two strands of the DNA molecule
together.
 In joining of the two bases:-

•In DNA- molecule, Adenine(A) join with

Thymine(T) and A=T and
Guanine(G) join with Cytosine(C) and G=C
•-In RNA-molecule, Adenine(A) join with
Uracil(U) and A=U
• Guanine(G) join with Cytosine(C) and G=C
 Calculate the percentage of bases
•1.If in DNA molecule cytosine makes 20%.
What is the percentage of thymine?
•Solution- in DNA molecule A=T, G=C ,so when
C=20%, G=C=20%
•A + T + G +C =100 , A=T, A+A+20+20=100
•2A+40=100, 2A+40-40=100-40, 2A=60,
•2A/2=60/2, =A=30 ,A=T=30
 Contn…
2.If one strand of DNA molecule contains ATGC
bases , the complementary strand would contain,
TACG.
3.Suppose a certain DNA molecule has 300 bases, &
50 of adenine, what is the number of cytosine?
A=T=50, A+T+G+C=300, 50+50+G+C=300
100-100+G+G=300-100, 2G=200,2G/2=200/2
G=100,G=C=100
 Contn…
Genes are made up of repeating patterns of bases in
the DNA.
By the 1940s, most scientists had decided that DNA
was probably the molecule that carried inherited
information from one generation to the next. But
how did it work?

 A gene is a unit of hereditary material located on

the chromosomes.
Replication of DNA
CONTN…
 Contn…
•The Double Helix. The double-helical structure
of DNA proposed by Watson and Crick.
•The sugar phosphate backbones of the two
chains are shown in red and blue and the bases
are shown in green, purple, orange, and yellow.
 Contn…
• As noted above, there is polarity in each strand
(5’ 3’ ) of the DNA double helix: one end of
a DNA strand will have a 5’-phosphate and the
other end will have a 3’-hydroxyl group.
Watson and Crick found that hydrogen
bonding could only occur if the polarity of the
two strands ran in opposite directions
 Contn…
•Thus, the two strands of the DNA double helix are antiparallel
(5’ 3’ and 3’ 5’). This structural feature has important
implications for the mechanism of DNA replication . The DNA
double helix is also referred to as double-stranded DNA
(dsDNA) or duplex DNA to distinguish it from the single-
stranded DNA (ssDNA) found in some viruses.
•Eg.5’-A T A T C A T A T G A T A T G T A-3’
3’-T A T A G T A T A C T A T A C A T-5’

•
 Contn…
•How Many Chromosomes Are in a Cell?
With the exception of the gametes (eggs or
sperm) and a few specialized tissues, every cell
in a human body is diploid (2n). This means that
the cell contains two nearly identical copies of
each of the 23 types of chromosomes, for a total
of 46 chromosomes.
 Contn…
•The haploid (1n) gametes contain only one copy
of each of the 23 chromosome types, while certain
tissues have unusual numbers of chromosomes—
many liver cells, for example, have two nuclei,
while mature red blood cells have no nuclei at all.
•The two copies of each chromosome in body cells
are called homologous chromosomes, or
homologues (Greek homologia, “agreement”).
 Contn…
•Before cell division, each homologue replicates, producing two
identical sister chromatids
• joined at the centromere, a condensed area found on all
eukaryotic chromosomes .
•The difference between homologous chromosomes and sister
chromatids.
• Homologous chromosomes are a pair of the same chromosome—
say, chromosome number 16.
•Sister chromatids are the two replicas of a single chromosome
held together by the centromeres after DNA replication.
Contn…
 Contn…
•Hence, as cell division begins, a human body
cell contains a total of 46 replicated
chromosomes, each composed of two sister
chromatids joined by one centromere. The cell
thus contains 46 centromeres and 92 chromatids
(2 sister chromatids for each of 2 homologues
for each of 23 chromosomes).
 The cell cycle
•The cell cycle:-it is the sequence of events which
occurs b/n one cell division & the next. It include:-
•1-INTERPHASE-is the period of synthesis & growth of
material & DNA replication, it is non -division stage.
2.Phases of the Cell Cycle
The increased size and more complex organization of
eukaryotic gen. This division process is diagrammed
as a cell cycle, consisting of five phases.
Contn…
 The Five Phases
•G1 is the primary growth phase of the cell. For many
organisms, this encompasses the major portion of the cell’s life
span.
•S is the phase in which the cell synthesizes a replicate of the
genome.
•G2 is the second growth phase, in which preparations are
made for genomic separation.
During this phase, mitochondria and other organelles replicate,
chromosomes condense, and microtubules begin to assemble
at a spindle
 Contn…
•G1, S, and G2 together constitute interphase,
the portion of the cell cycle between cell
divisions.
•3.CYTOKINESIS-is involve the division of
cytoplasm in to two daughter cells.
There are two types of
cell division:
1.Mitosis & 2.meiosis cell division
•1. Mitosis is division of the somatic cells to make
identical daughter cells & have equal number of
chromosome with parent cell.
•-Mitosis-takes place on body cells & occur in
unicellular & multicellular organisms during
asexual reproduction.
• Eg. In multicellular-to replace damaged cells.
 Contn…
• The stages of mitosis are interphase(G1 ,S,
G2), prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
• Body cells divide by mitosis to produce more
identical cells for growth, repair, replacement
and, in some cases, asexual reproduction.
Contn…
Eg. Amoeba cell division
 2• Meiosis
• 2• Meiosis is the division of the sex cells
resulting in daughter cells with half the
original number of chromosomes. SO
MEIOSIS-division is called reduction division
• The process of meiosis introduces
variety(non-identical) because no two
gametes are ever the same
 Contn…
• Meiosis is divided into two divisions.
1.The
first meiotic division is very similar to mitosis it occur
before birth.
-It involves separation of homologous
chromosome
2.The second is again similar, but there is no more
replication of chromosomes, so the number of
chromosomes in the final cells is halved, it occur at
puberty time. -It
involves separation of sister chromatids.
Contn…
 Fertilization
• From his observations, van Beneden proposed
in 1887 that an egg and a sperm, each
containing half the complement of
chromosomes found in other cells, fuse to
produce a single cell called a zygote.
Contn…
 Contn…
•The zygote, like all of the somatic cells ultimately derived
from it, contains two copies of each chromosome.
•The fusion of gametes to form a new cell is called
fertilization, or syngamy.
• Meiosis takes place in the ovaries of girls and women. It is
called oogenesis, and forms the ova. The first stage takes
place before birth.
• The second stage occurs as the eggs ripen during the
menstrual cycle and is completed after fertilization of the
egg.
 Contn…
• Meiosis takes place in the testes after puberty w/c
called Spermatogenesis produces sperm.
•Synapsis is the close pairing of homologous
chromosomes that takes place early in prophase I of
meiosis. Crossing over occurs between the paired
DNA strands, creating the chromosomal
configurations known as chiasmata. The two
homologues are locked together by these exchanges
and they do not disengage readily
Contn…
 Contn…
• The results of crossing over. During crossing
over, non-sister (shown above) or sister
chromatids may exchange segments
Cont…
A comparison of meiosis and mitosis.
 Contn…
Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Somatic cells (normal body Germ cells found in reproductive

where does it take place?
cells) (sex) organs

Chromosomes in daughter Same number of Half the chromosome number of

cells? chromosomes as original cell original cell

Number of daughter cells? 2 4

Daughter cells identical to Daughter cells different from parent

Variety?
parent cells cells – always variety

Always occurs at first meiotic

DNA replication? Always occurs division, never at second meiotic
division
 2.2 MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
•Gregor Mendel(1822-1884)-is called the father of genetics, b/c he is
the first person who tried to explain the pattern of inheritance of trait
experimentally.
For his experiment mendel choose garden pea why? b/c:
 It is self-pollinating plant.
 It has number of contrasting traits, which are easily
distinguished.
 It has short generation time.
• Gregor Mendel was the first
person to suggest separately inherited factors, which we now call
genes.
Contn…
•• Gregor Mendel carried out his experiments on seven different
characteristics of garden peas.
•1.Identify seven contrasting pair of trait.
•Trait contrasting pair
• Dominant Recessive F1
•1.Stem length tall X short all tall
•2.Flower arrangement axial X terminal all axial
•3.Pod color green X yellow all green
•4.Pod shape inflated X pinched all inflated
•5.Seed color yellow X green all yellow
•6.Seed shape round X wrinkled all round
•7.Flower color red X white all red
Contn…
 Contn…
•2.The crossing of pure tall & pure short, mendel
Mendel called parental generation(P1)
•Eg. Tall(TT) x Tall(TT)= all are Tall(TT)
• Short(tt) x Short(tt)=all are short(tt)
•3.Pea plants produced by artificial cross
pollination mendel called first flial generation(F1)
•Eg. Trait P1 P1 F1
 Contn…
Stem length pure tall X pure short all hybrid
tall.
• TT X tt Tt
•4.A cross b/n the F1(F1 X F1) plant produce
F2(second flial generation)
•Eg. F1 F1 F2
•Hybrid tall(Tt) X hybrid tall(Tt)=3tall : 1short
 How inheritance work?

•-The chromosomes we inherit from our parents

carry our genetic information in the form of
genes.
• • Genes can have different forms called alleles.
• Genes come in pairs. A pair of genes controls a
particular characteristic or set of characteristics.
• Each member of a pair of genes may have a
different allele
 An allele in gene can decided

•-Your thump is strait or curved,you are dimple

or not
•-Your tongue is roll or not ,your eye color,nose
shape
•-Your right or left hand.
 DOMINANCE & RECESSIVE ALLELES/GENES

•1.Dominance-is trait that expresses it self in

presence of its opposing allele in the F 1-
generation.
•-It expressed/written in capital letter(T,R,W..)
•2.Recessive-is the trait that is masked/hidden it
self or not appear in the F1-generation.
• -It expressed/written with small letter(t,w,r…)
 GENE CAN BE

•1.Homozygous-it contain both alleles w/c are

similar/identical.
•Eg.TT-pure tall(homozygous dominant)
• tt-pure short(homozygous recessive)
•2.Heterozygous-it contain d/t alleles one is
dominant, the other is recessive.
•Eg.Tt-heterozygous tall(hybride)
 MONOHYBRIDE INHERITANCE

•-It occur when two organisms are allowed to

mate together(hybride) naturally or
artificially.
•Eg.In Mendel experiment:TT X tt=Tt(hybrid
tall).
•-Also mendel crossed hybrid(heterozygous)
F1.
 Contn…
X T t

T TT Tt

t Tt tt
 Contn…
•Genotype=1TT: 2Tt :1tt, phenotype=3tall:
1short
•Genotype-is the allelic composition of an
individual for the given genetic trait.
•Phenotype-is the physical appearance of an
individual for the given genetic trait.
 Contn…
•-Dihybrid inheritance-is when two pair of
contrasting trait are in heritance occur.
•Eg.Tall plant with round seed crossed with
short plant with wrinkled (TTRR X ttrr)
•-Genetic crosses can be showen with the use
of simple genetic diagrams called punnet
square
 TEST CROSS
•if the required feature is inherited through the
dominant gene the physical appearance does not show
whether the organism is homo or heterozygous.
•To find out the genotype of an individual showing the
effect of dominant allele it must be crossed with
homozygous recessive individual.
•B/c the recessive genes have no effect on the phenotype
of the offispring unless they are in the homozygous
state. This method is called testcross.
 MENDELIAN GENETICS IN PEOPLE

•-Gregor mendel showed the pattern of

inheritance by using of garden pea plants, the
mechanism of inheritance work for all
organisms including Human.
•Eg. Trait Dominant Recessive
•Dimpleness dimple no dimple
•Ear lobes dangly attached
 Contn…
•1.If a man who is heterozygous of dimple
trait married a women no dimple.What is the
possibility of their children to be dimple in
percentage?(D-dimple,d-no dimple)
• -parental phenotype=hetero-dimple X
homo no dimple,Genotype=Dd X dd
 Contn…
X D d
d Dd dd
d Dd dd
 Contn…
•Offspring genotype- 2Dd : 2dd
•Offspring phenotype-2dimple : 2non-dimple

•-percentage=100/2=50%
 TYPES OF DOMINANT

•In study of inheritance there are three types of dominance

•1.Complete dominance-is one trait completely mask the
effect of the other & express it self.eg.TTxtt=all tall
•2.Incomplete dominance-when the two heterozygous
alleles has phenotype is intermediate b/n two parents.
•-Eg red + white=pink(intermediate of the two)
•3.Codominance-is when both the alleles in a gene is
dominant.
•Eg.red bull x white cow=calf is roan
roan
 BLOOD GROOUP INHERITANCE IN HUMAN:

•-In human there are 4-types of blood group are

•(A, B,.AB,O)blood group.
•-Allele A&B are always dominant
-Allele O-is recessive when
it pair with allele A&B
•-Eg. If aman with heterozygous blood type A married a woman
with heterozygous blood type B. what is the possible blood type
of their children?
•-parental phenotypa=hetro b/type A X hetrob/type B
• -Genotype=AO X BO
 Contn…
X A O
B AB BO
O AO OO

-Offspring genotype=AB : AO : BO: OO

-Offspring phenotype-25%A :25%AB:25%B:25%O
 MORE HUMAN
INHERITANCE
•We mostly inherit normal gene from our parents,
but sometimes people may inherit genes which may
cause health problem, even death from our parents.
•-one of the problem is ALBINISM.
•Albinism-is the lack of MELANIUM pigment
substances in the skin that gives natural protection
from sun-Albinism appears as result of hidden
recessive alleles.
 Contn…
•Albino people have increased risk of
developing a skin cancer.
•-Normal allele for melanin pigment is
dominant & is A
•-Albinism is recessive &represent by( a)
•• Albinism is an inherited condition where
melanin pigment is not produced in the body
Contn…
 Contn…
•Eg. If an albino man marries a normal
heterozygous woman, is there any possibility
that they can have normal child?
•-parental phenotype-albino man x normal
heterozygous woman
•-Genotype-aa x Aa
 x A a
a Aa aa
a Aa Aa

-offspring genotype-2Aa : 2aa

-offspring phenotype-50%normal : 50%albino
 2.3 BREEDING
•Genetics-is very important in deed in the
breeding of farm animals & plants.
•1.Selective breeding-is used to breed for
particular trait which is true breeding of plant or
animals by selective what you want.
• Eg. Selective breeding is the Borena breed
of cattle.
 Contn…
•2.Cross-breeding-it is alternative way of improving a breed of
animals or plants is to combine good trait from two d/t breeds.
•Eg. One of family of goat give good milk yield, but they
cannot resist sun. The other goat cannot yield good milk, but
they can resist the heat of the sun.
•-So when both families selected their best male & female goat
& cross breed them , their offspring would inherit both the
gene for good milk production & the genes for heat resistance.
 Contn…
• Breeding animals and plants to develop the
best possible characteristics is very important
for society, to enable us to make the best
possible use of our resources, to feed our
population, to maintain our genetic diversity
and to provide new and useful genes for the
international community
 UNIT THREE

•HUMAN BIOLOGY AND HEREDITY

•NERVOUS SYSTEM(NS)
•Multi-cellular organisms need some level of
awareness of their surrounding in order to avoid
danger, find food, find mate…
•-What ever the level of awareness, it requires
coordination & control with in an organism to
respond to changes in the surrounding.
 Contn…
•Generally,the work of nervous system-in the
body:
•1.To collect information about the internal &
external environment
•2.To act up on the information, usually by
coordinating the organisms activity.
 NERVOUS COORDINATION
•-Single celled organisms & plants are donot
have NS & nervous coordination.
•-In human beings NS-is highly complex
system that provides us with rapid
coordinated responses to the situations we
meet in our level.
 NS-HAS TWO MAIN PARTS:

•1.Central nervous system(CNS) & 2.Periferal nervous

system(PNS)
•1.CNS-is made up of : BRAIN & SPINAL CORD
•I.BRAIN: is a delicate mass of nervous tissue with the
consistency of thick yoghurt.
•-It is enclosed in membrane & protected by the bone of
skull called cranium.
•-It is responsible for over seeing the daily operation of
the human body.
 Contn…
•-The nervous that come out of the brain are
known as the cranial nervous-these mainly to
structure in your –head, neck,eye,tongue,jaws…
•-Cranial nerves-are in number 12-pairs in
mammals, they are not mixed.
•HUMAN BRAIN contain three major parts:these
are
•1.Fore brain, 2,Mid brain & 3.Hind brain
 1.FORE BRAIN
•1.FORE BRAIN: is include A.CEREBRUM,
B.HYPOTHALAMUS
•A.Cerebrum:-is the largest brain used to control: memory,
speech of thought, intelligence ..
•Cerebrum-include four lobes:
•1.Frontal lobe-coordinate voluntary movement of muscle.
•2.Parental lobe- interprets- pain, touch, temperature
•3.Temporal lobe-sensation of hearing
• 4.Occipital lobe-sensation of vision
 Contn…
•B.HYPOTHALAMUS-control & regulate body
temperature, hunger, thirst
•2.MID BRAIN-deals with vision & intermediate fore &
hind brain.
•3.HIND BRAIN-include- A. Cerebellum & B. Medulla
oblongata
•A,CEREBLLUM-control body movement or balance &
equilibrium & posture.
•Eg. Walking, writing, playing multicellular instruction.
 Contn…
•A,CEREBLLUM-control body movement or
balance & equilibrium & posture.
•Eg. Walking, writing, playing multicellular
instruction.
•B.MEDULLA OBLONGATA-control
involuntary actions, such as respiration,
breathing, circulation, salivation. Peristalisis
Contn…
 2.SPINAL CORD
•2.SPINAL CORD: it is extends down from the medulla
oblongata.
•-it is protected by vertebrae
•• The spinal cord carries information from all over the body to and
from the brain
•-The nerves come out from spinal cord are known as spinal
nerve.
•-spinal nerves-are mixed nerves containing both sensory &
motor neurons.
-are 31-pairs in number in humans-rise from spinal cord.
 Contn…
•-Functions of spinal nerves-are coordination of
immediate involuntary reflex action & it is away
for impulse transmission to & from brain.
•The cross-section of spinal cord show two region:
•-I. Inner region(grey-matter)-it contains the cell
bodies of motor & association neuron.
•II. Outer region (white-matter)-it contains nerve
fibers running up & down the cord.
 Contn…
•-Spinal nerve join to spinal cord by two
roots:
•A. Dorsal root: contain the sensory(body)
neurons.
•B.Ventral root: connected to motor(brain)
neurons
Contn…
 II.PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM(PNS)

•-It is made up of the neurons (nerve cells) & the sensory

receptors.
•-PNS-consists of the nerves that pass to all parts of the
body from CNS.
•-PNS-is include all the sensory & motor nerves.
•• Sensory neurons carry information from the sense
organs to the central nervous system (CNS).
• Motor neurons carry instructions from the CNS to the
effector organs (muscles and glands).
 NEURONS
•NEURONS: are the structural & functional unit of nervous system
(NS)
•-It is the smallest unit of NS.
•NEURONS-has three main parts:
•1.CELL BODY:-is contain nucleus & most cytoplasm of a neuron.
•-It receive message from dendrites.
•2.AXON-is longest cytoplasmic fiber which extends from cell body
to the end of the terminal branches.
•-It sends message to the surround neurons or body organs eg. ,
glands, muscles
 Contn…
•-It covered by fatty substance called
MYELINSHEATH that insulate the axon from
neighboring axon & help speed up passage of
impulse.
•3.DENDRITES-are many in number & the
shortest cytoplasmic strands of neurons,
•-It receive message from near by neuron to the
cell body.
Contn…
 TYPES OF NEURON
•TYPES OF NEURON: there are three types of neurons
•1.AFFERENT(SENSORY) NEURON:- carries impulses from
sensory receptors to CNS.
•2.EFFERENT(MOTOR)NEUROS:-carreis impulse from CNS
to effectors(muscles,glands)
•3.RELY(ASSOCIATION)NEURONS:-links & connects
afferent with efferent neurons.
•The path way of an impulse during nervous coordition is :
•Sense organ afferent neuron CNS efferent neuron effector
 NERVE IMPULSE
•NERVE IMPULSE:-is a minute electrical
events that is the result of charge difference
across the membrane of the axon.
•1.If the neuron is resting or non-transmitting an
impulse the outer portion of axon membrane has
positive charge & the inner portion has negative
charge- such neuron is called polarized.
 contn…
•+ + + + + + + Resting potential-is a
state of polarization
•_ _ _ _ _ _ _
•2.when an impulse transmits across the neuron, the
axon is stimulate & the positive charge comes inside &
the negative charge comes outside the axon membrane.
• This condition is called action potential, a neuron
during action potential is called depolarized.
Contn…
 Contn…
•Action potential-is a wave of depolarization across a neuron.
• • The nervous system is the most rapid. Nervous control
involves:
stimulus → receptor → co-ordinator →effector → response
• Neurons carry electrical impulses known as the action
potential.
• In any pathway the junctions between neurons are called
synapses.
when an impulse arrives in one neuron chemicals are
released in the synapse to trigger an impulse in the next
neuron.
Contn…
 SYNAPSE
•SYNAPSE:- is a junction b/n two neurons(axon to
dendrites)
•-An impulse is transmitted across the synapse by
means of chemical transmitters called neuro
transmitters.
• REFLEX ACTION:-is a sudden,
automatic,instinctive & an controlled response of to
parts of the body or the whole body to external
stimuli.
 Contn…
•REFLEX ACTION:-is used to protect from danger, damage &
homeostatic reactions automatically with out involving
conscious thought.
•REFLEX ARC:-is a neural path way during the reflex action.
•-The path way of nerve impulse during reflex arc is :-
•stimulus → receptor →Afferent neuron co-ordinator(CNS)
→effector → response
During reflex action an impulse inters the spinal cord through
the dorsal root & leaves the spinal cord by ventral root.
 THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF REFLEX ACTION

•1.SIMPLE REFLEX ACTION:-is very rapid,

involuntary, automatic response to stimulus.
•-It is in born (unlearned) & it does not involve
the brain or conscious through for its initiation.
•Eg. Blinking of eye, sneezing, kneejerk,
• 2.CONDITIONED REFLEX ACTION:-is not in
born but it is acquired through training or
learned
 Contn…
•Eg. A Russian scientists called IVAN PAVLOVE
investigated conditional reflex action using DOG.
•He noticed that a dog produce a lot of saliva at the sight of
food.
•-In this experiment , a bell was rung every time when food
was supplied to dog.
•-After the experiment was repeated several times , He
noticed that , when the bell was rung the dog salivated even
if there was no food present.
 Contn…
•-This means the sound of the bell does not
cause a dog to salivate . But in the experiment
the dog has learned to associate the sound of the
bell with the presence of food.
•-Salivation at the sound of the bell thus became
a reflex action- which is learning –so it is called
conditional reflex action.
 DRUGS
•1.Legal drugs: are drugs that are used for medical purpose,
give by doctor.
•2.Ilegal drugs: are drugs that are bring about abnormal
behavioral change .it is not medical use.
• 3.Drug abuse: is using the illegal drugs without a doctor
advice that bring about abnormal body function ,
illness& even death.
4.Drug dependence is when you use a drug again and
again and become addicted.
 SENSE ORGANSE
•SENSE ORGANSE: all living things are
sensitive to their environmental changes such
as light, temperature, sound, touch, chemical.
Gravity,etc.
•These stimuli are received by specialized
region called RECEPTORS.
• A sense organs-is composed of group of
receptors.
 GROUPS OF RECEPTORS
•1.PHOTORECEPTORS:(light-receptors)-eye
respond to light stimulus.
•Eg. Organisms without eye sensitive to light it need
to make food by photosynthesis.
•2.MECHANORECEPTORSmechanical
receptors)-are sensitive to mechanical deformation .
•Eg. Receptors sensitive to touch, pressure,
sound(ear), displacement of body balance.
 Contn…
•3.CHEMORECEPTORS(chemical receptors)-
are stimulated by chemicals.
•Eg. Receptors mediating the sense of smell &
taste
•4.THERMORECEPTORS(temperature
receptors)-are stimulated by temperature .
•Eg. Receptors located in the skin ,sensitive to
warmth & cold.
 The five sense organs
•The five sense organs are Eye, Ear, Tongue,
Nose & Skin.
•1.The Eye: light is sensitive to vision & it
used to see color
eye
 Contn…
• The human eye includes: sclera, cornea, iris, pupil, lens,
ciliary muscle, suspensory ligament, retina and optic nerve.
• The light-sensitive cells – the rods and the cones - are
found in the retina.
• The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye.
 FOCUSING OF THE LIGHT TO RETINA: is
•Cornea aqueous humor pupil lens vitreous humor
retina auditory nerve brain.
Eye control by:
 Contn…
•• The lens controls the fine focus of the image onto the retina.

• Short sight, long sight and

astigmatism are three common defects of the eye.
 EYE DEFECTS &THEIR CORRECTION:
•1.SHORT SIGHT-can see clearly near object, but cannot see
far object , it caused by LONG eye ball or lens, far object
focused in front of the retina.
Correct-by wearing concave(diverging) lens.
SHORT SIGHT
LONG SIGHT
 LONG EYE BALL
•2.LONG SIGHT: can see far object clearly,
but cannot see near object, it caused by
SHORT eye ball, near object focused behind
retina. It correct by wearing convex (converging
lens)
 2.THE EAR:

•The ear is an organ of hearing and of balance detecting gravity

•STRUCTURE OF EAR-it has three parts:1.outer ear, 2.middle
ear, 3.inner ear.
•1.outer ear:has the following major parts:
•a.pinna-is used to direct sound waves in to ear canal &
surrounds
•b.ear canal-is a tube which directs sound to the ear drum.
•c.ear drum-is membranous structure that vibrates the
incoming sound to middle ear.
 Contn…
•2.MIDDLE EAR-it contain three tiny bones called
OSSICLES.
•-These are
hammer(malleus)>anvil(incus)>stirrup(stapes).
•-These ossicles are the smallest bones used for amplify
the vibration when ear drum vibrate –the Eustachian
tube balance the pressure in the middle ear with the
pressure of atmosphere & oval window-amplifies the
sound vibraties 20 times.
 Contn…
•3.THE ENNER EAR: is fluid filled consists of the
COCHLEA-which is responsible of for hearing.
-Saculus & utriculus-detect gravity & posture.
Auditory nerve-carries an impulse from inner ear
to brain.
•The path way of vibration in the ear is:
• Pinna ear canal ear drum ossicles oval
window cochlea auditory nerve brain
Contn…
 3.TONGUE
•-It is sense organs that respond to dissolved
chemicals stimulus for tasting. There are five
types of taste receptors on the tongue. These
are sweet, sour, salt, bitter & umami.
• Identify the taste areas of the tongue.
• Conduct an experiment to prove that the
actual taste of food is a mixture of taste and
smell.
TONGUE
 4.NOSE
•-is sense of smell caused by chemical stimulus.
•-smell receptors are called OLIFACTORY-cells
which are carry impulse to the center of smell in
the brain to produce sensation of smell.
•-Both the sense of smell & taste are detected by
CHEMORECEPTORS. But smell receptors are
much more sensitive than taste receptors.
• • Draw and label the smelling organ.
Smelling part
 5.SKIN
•is sense organ that responds to touch, pain,
temperature & pressure-this is due to the
presence of five types of receptors found the
lower layer of skin. These are touch, pain,
cold, hot & pressure receptors. • Draw and
label the structure of the skin.
SKIN
 GLANDS
• Glands in our body can be grouped in to:-
A. Endocrine: - ductless; less in number
B. Exocrine: - have duct; many in number
 Exocrine glands release their secretion in to the duct or
tube which carry to target organ
 Endocrine glands release their secretions (hormone)
directly in to the blood
 Endocrine system is the system of glands which
produce chemicals called hormone to co-ordinate our body
 Most hormones only affect certain tissues or organs
 They can act very rapidly, but often their effects are
slower and longer lasting than the results of nervous control.
 . COMPARISON B/N TYPES OF GLANDS:
•Exocrine glands and Endocrine glands
•-have ducts - have no ducts
•-secret digestive enzyme -secret hormone
•-Eg. Salivary gland Eg. –Pituitary gland
• -Pancreas gland -Parathyroid gland
• -intestinal gland -Thyroid gland
• -Mammary gland -Pancreatic gland
• - Sweat -Adrenal and
• -Gonads
 Contn…
• Some of glands have both exocrine and
endocrine glands functions .Eg, Pancreas –
which secrete the hormone Glucagon and
Insulin and also secrete –pancreatic-juice
containing digestive juice in to the pancreatic
duct
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• 1.Pituitary gland-is located at the base of the
brain and is about size of pea. It is often called
the master gland –b/c its hormone regulate
growth, reproduction, milk production,
stimulate melanin, FSH,LH…… and many other
body processes and activities of endocrine
glands.
 Contn…
• 2.Thyroid glands-is found in the neck region and secrete
iodine-containing hormone known as thyroxin –is used to
control rate of metabolism, growth and development of body
and mental. Over secretion of thyroxin causes-fast
metabolism and restlessness.
The symptoms are loss of weight, sweating, became
irritable…..
Low secretion of Thyroxin –cause
tiredness(lack of energy), wait gain(obesity) Deficiency of
thyroxin – in adult human results thyroid gland enlargement
which is called goiter-which prevent by using iodine to the
diet in the form of iodized salt.
 Contn…
• 3.Parathyroid gland-is located at the back of
thyroid gland. It secrete parathyroid hormone-
which regulate the level of Calcium ion (Ca+)
in the body and regulate phosphorus contain
in the blood.
 Contn…
•4.Pancrease-is located below the stomach.
It contain endocrine
glands called Insletlangerhans-which secrete hormone called
insulin and Glucagon-both control amount of glucose in the
blood.
•>Insulin-is secrete when the blood glucose level is higher than
the normal. So it used to lower blood glucose level. If the
insulin metabolism goes wrong you have diabetes.
•>Glucagon-is secrete when the blood glucose level is lower
than the normal. It used to raise the blood glucose level.
 Contn…
•5.Adrenal glands-is located at the top of each kidney.
-Its outer
region is called cortex and inner region is medulla. A/medulla
produce adrenaline hormone (fight-flight hormone)-which is
work in the preparation of body for stressed, angry, excited
situation.
-A/cortex-secretes
aldosterone hormone –used to control reabsorption of
sodium and chloride ions which control
osmoregulation(control water & minerals)
 Contn…
•6.Gonads-are glands that produce sex hormone( testis and
ovary). >The male gonad is
called tests and the female is ovary-they become active at
the time of puberty-when the big physical change which
make boy and girl. The
role of tests: puberty in boys usually begins b/n 9 & 15 years
old. -when the boys reach
the age of puberty the FSH stimulates the tests to produce a
male hormone called testosterone. Which develop secondary
sexual characteristics of male.
 Contn…
•Secondary sexual characteristics of male:
1.pubic hair, body hair & facial
hair begin to grow.
2.Growth in height, deepening of voice due to enlargement of
larnex. 3.The shoulder & chest
broaden, enlargement of penis.
4. production of sperm by the tests, feeling of
independence.
The role of ovaries: girls go puberty slightly earlier than boy which
is b/n the age of 8-14. Ovaries-produce female sex hormone
called oestrogen & progestrogene.
 Contn…
•Ostrogen-is causes the development of female
secondary sexual characteristics.
•Female secondary sexual characteristics:
1.Growth- in height
and hole body structure & development of breast.
2.Pubic hair and under the
armpits growth, widening of hips.
3.Voice become thinner, maturation of
egg and menstruation begins, feeling of independence.
 Menstruation cycle
• : is a sequence of events that take place
approximately every four weeks through out
the fertile life of woman, from the age of
puberty to around 50-years of age. It is
monthly discharged of blood.

-It is the sign no fertilization occur, it

bleeding3-5 days.
 STAGE OF DEVELOPING OF EGG
•After puberty female develops egg-
•0--- 5 days old egg leaves from womp/utrus
•0-12 days new egg maturing in ovary.
• 14-the egg is released from ovary in to fallopian
tube-which called ovulation .
•-fallopian tube-is the place where fertilization occur.
•15->23 new egg travelling to womb.
•20-> 28 stay in womb.
•If no fertilization occur the egg will die and dis integrate
and bleeding occur.
•THE HORMONE OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE: Produced by:
•• Hormones from the pituitary and the ovary
control the menstrual cycle.
•1.Putuitary gland: FSH-stimulate the development of
follicle in the ovary and help to the egg matures and
ripens. LH-stimulate release of the egg from ovary in the
middle of the menstrual cycle
 Contn…
•2.OVARY: Oestrogen-stimulate the lining of uterus to
building up in preparation for pregnancy.
•Progesterogene-maintain the thickened lining of the
uterus and stimulate the growth of blood vessels in the
lining to prepare for pregnancy.
•By the end of cycle the hormone levels drop, Ovaries and
Uterus shrink, woman stop having period.
•-This change take place around 50 age of woman which is
called menopause.
 BOTH NERVOUS AND HORMONAL SYSTEM IN COORDINATION :

•1.NS- of common feature:

•-Electrical message travel along neurons.
•-chemical messages travel along synapses.
•-messages travel fast and have rapid effect.
•-It usually a short lived response .
 Contn…
•2.Hormonal control-common feature :
•-message transported slightly more slowly in
the blood.
•-Only chemical messages involved.
•-After take longer to have an effect.
•So both control enable body to work as
coordination.
 Contn…
• THE END OF 1ST SEMISTER
•GOOD LUCK