Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

N.S. Gama-Arachchige, BSc (PDN), PhD (Kentucky, USA)

Senior Lecturer
Department of Botany
University of Peradeniya 1
At the end of this lecture you should be able to....

• Explain three types of sexual life cycles

• Explain key roles of meiosis
• Explain different phases of meiotic cell division
• Explain origins of genetic variation among offspring
• Identify events are unique to meiosis
• Compare and contrast mitotic and meiotic cell division

2
 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction

• One parent
• Bacteria: Binary fission
• Single cell eukaryotes: Mitotic cell division
• Multicellular organisms: Budding
• Genetically identical offspring (Clone)

3
 Asexual reproduction
Parent

Bud

Bacteria Hydra Aspen

Genetically identical offspring (Clone) 4

Sexual reproduction

• Two parents
• Results in greater variation than asexual reproduction
• Offspring vary genetically from siblings and both parents 5
 Sexual life cycle
• Meiosis and fertilization

• Diploid cells 2n n
Somatic cells of adults
have 2 sets of chromosomes

• Haploid cells
Gametes have only 1 set of
chromosomes

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 Sexual life cycle
• Some life cycles include longer diploid phases,
• some include longer haploid phases

• In most animals, diploid state dominates

Zygote first undergoes mitosis to produce diploid cells.
Later in the life cycle, some of these diploid cells undergo
meiosis to produce haploid gametes

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Human Life Cycle
• Fertilization is the union of
gametes (the sperm and the
egg)
• The fertilized egg is called a
zygote and has one set of
chromosomes from each
parent
• The zygote produces somatic
cells by mitosis and develops
into an adult
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Human Life Cycle
• At sexual maturity ovaries and
testes produce haploid gametes
• Gametes are the only types of
human cells produced by
meiosis
• Meiosis results in one set of
chromosomes in each gamete
• Fertilization and meiosis
alternate in sexual life cycles to
maintain chromosome number

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 Three types of sexual life cycles
Haploid (n) Haploid unicellular or
Haploid multi-
Diploid (2n) cellular organism multicellular organism
n Gametes n (gametophyte)

n Mitosis n Mitosis Mitosis n Mitosis

n n n
n n
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION Spores n n
Gametes n
Gametes
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

2n Zygote 2n MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

2n
Diploid 2n Zygote
Diploid multicellular 2n
multicellular Mitosis Mitosis
organism Zygote
organism (sporophyte)
(a) Animals (b) Plants and some algae (c) Most fungi and some protists

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 Haploid (n) (a) Animals
Diploid (2n)
n Gametes n • Gametes are the only haploid
cells in animals
n
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION • Produced by meiosis and
undergo no further cell
division before fertilization
2n 2n Zygote
• Gametes fuse to form a
Diploid Mitosis diploid zygote that divides by
multicellular mitosis to develop into a
organism multicellular organism 11
 (b) Plants and some algae
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n) • Plants and some algae
Haploid multi- exhibit an alternation of
cellular organism generations
(gametophyte)
Mitosis n Mitosis
n
• This life cycle includes both
n n n
Spores a diploid and a haploid
Gametes multicellular stage
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
• The diploid organism, called
2n
Diploid 2n Zygote the sporophyte, makes
multicellular Mitosis haploid spores by meiosis
organism
(sporophyte) 12
 (b) Some plants and some algae
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
• Each spore grows by mitosis
Haploid multi- into a haploid organism
cellular organism called a gametophyte
(gametophyte)
Mitosis n Mitosis • A gametophyte makes
n n n n
Spores haploid gametes by mitosis
Gametes
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
• Fertilization of gametes
results in a diploid
2n 2n Zygote
Diploid sporophyte
multicellular Mitosis
organism
(sporophyte) 13
 Haploid (n) (c) Most fungi and some protists
Diploid (2n)
Haploid unicellular or • The only diploid stage is the
multicellular organism single-celled zygote; there is
no multicellular diploid stage
Mitosis n Mitosis
n • The zygote produces haploid
n n cells by meiosis
Gametes n
• Each haploid cell grows by
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION mitosis into a haploid
2n multicellular organism
Zygote
• The haploid adult produces
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gametes by mitosis
 Three types of sexual life cycles
• Depending on the type of life cycle, either haploid or
diploid cells can divide by mitosis

• However, only diploid cells can undergo meiosis

• In all three life cycles, the halving and doubling of

chromosomes contribute to genetic variation in
offspring
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 The Process of Meiosis

• Meiotic cells have an interphase period that is similar

to mitosis with G1, S, and G2 phases

• After interphase, germ-line cells enter meiosis I

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 The Stages of Meiosis
• Meiosis consists of TWO cell divisions

1. Meiosis I (reduction division)

2. Meiosis II (equational division)

• Results in four haploid daughter cells with replicated

chromosomes

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Interphase

Overview of meiosis
Homologous pair of
chromosomes in
diploid parent cell
Homologous pair of Chromosomes replicate
replicated chromosomes

Sister chromatids
Diploid cell with replicated
chromosomes
Meiosis I

1 Homologous
chromosomes separate
Haploid cells with
replicated chromosomes
Meiosis II
2 Sister chromatids separate

Haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes 18

Meiosis I
• Meiosis I is preceded by interphase, when the
chromosomes are duplicated to form sister
chromatids
• The sister chromatids are genetically identical and
joined at the centromere
• The single centrosome replicates, forming two
centrosomes

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Meiosis I Four phases
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I

Cytokinesis overlaps the latter stages of meiosis I

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Meiosis Prophase I
• Occupies more than 90% of the time
required for meiosis

• Chromosomes begin to condense

• Synapsis
- homologous chromosomes loosely pair up,
- aligned gene by gene
Duplicated homologous
chromosomes (red and
blue) pair and exchange
segments; 2n  4 in this
example. 22
Synapsis

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Meiosis Prophase I
• Crossing over: Nonsister chromatids exchange DNA
segments

• Each pair of chromosomes forms a tetrad, a group

of four chromatids

• Each tetrad usually has one or more chiasmata, X-

shaped regions where crossing over occurred
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Meiosis Metaphase I
• Tetrads line up at the metaphase plate,
with one chromosome facing each
pole
• Microtubules from one pole are
attached to the kinetochore of one
chromosome of each tetrad
• Microtubules from the other pole are
attached to the kinetochore of the
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other chromosome
Meiosis Anaphase I
• Pairs of homologous
chromosomes separate
• One chromosome moves towards
each pole, guided by the spindle
apparatus
• Sister chromatids remain attached
at the centromere and move as
one unit towards the pole
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Meiosis Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• In the beginning of telophase I, each
half of the cell has a haploid set of
chromosomes
- each chromosome still consists of two
sister chromatids

• Cytokinesis usually occurs

simultaneously, forming two haploid
daughter cells

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Meiosis Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• Animal cells: Cleavage furrow forms
• Plant cells: Cell plate forms

• No chromosome replication occurs between the

end of meiosis I and the beginning of meiosis II
because the chromosomes are already replicated

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Meiosis II Four phases
Prophase II
Metaphase II Meiosis II is
Anaphase II very similar to
mitosis
Telophase II

Cytokinesis overlaps the latter stages of meiosis I

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30
Meiosis Prophase II

• A spindle apparatus forms

• In late prophase II, chromosomes (each

still composed of two chromatids) move
towards the metaphase plate

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Meiosis Metaphase II
• The sister chromatids are arranged at the
metaphase plate
• If crossing over occurred in meiosis I, the
two sister chromatids of each
chromosome are no longer genetically
identical
• The kinetochores of sister chromatids
attach to microtubules extending from
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opposite poles
Meiosis Anaphase II
• The sister chromatids separate

• The sister chromatids of each

chromosome now move as two new
individual chromosomes towards
opposite poles

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Meiosis Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• The chromosomes arrive at opposite
poles

• Nuclei form, and the chromosomes

begin de-condensing

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Meiosis Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm

• At the end of meiosis, there are four

daughter cells, each with a haploid set of
unreplicated chromosomes

• Each daughter cell is genetically distinct

from the others and from the parent cell
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Three events are unique to meiosis
1. Synapsis and crossing over
Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes (tetrads), pair all along
their length and exchange genetic information

2. Homologous recombination (crossing over)

Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes pair-up at the
metaphase plate (instead of sister chromatids)

3. Reduction division
Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes separate (instead of
sister chromatids)
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Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring

• Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation

1. Crossing over
2. Independent assortment of chromosomes
3. Random fertilization

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1. Crossing Over
• Genetic recombination between
nonsister chromatids
• Produces recombinant
chromosomes, which combine
DNA inherited from each parent
• Begins very early in prophase I, as
homologous chromosomes pair up
gene by gene
• Contributes to genetic variation by
combining DNA from two parents
into a single chromosome 38
Prophase I of meiosis Nonsister chromatids held together
during synapsis
Pair of homologs
Chiasma

Centromere
TEM
Anaphase I

Anaphase I I

Daughter
cells
Recombinant chromosomes 39
2. Independent assortment of chromosomes
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly
at metaphase I

• In independent assortment, each pair of

chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal
homologues into daughter cells independently of the
other pairs

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2. Independent assortment of chromosomes
• The number of combinations possible when
chromosomes assort independently into gametes is
2n, where n is the haploid number

• For humans (n = 23), there are 8388608 possible

combinations of chromosomes

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 Possibility 1 Possibility 2

Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells
Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4

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3. Random fertilization
• Random fertilization adds to genetic variation
because any sperm can fuse with any ovum
(unfertilized egg)

• The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4 million

possible chromosome combinations from
independent assortment) produces a zygote with
any of about 70 trillion diploid combinations
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A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
• Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets,
producing cells that are genetically identical to the
parent cell

• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets

from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells
that differ genetically from each other and from the
parent cell

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 MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell Chiasma MEIOSIS I

Prophase Prophase I
Duplicated Chromosome Chromosome Homologous
chromosome duplication duplication
2n  6 chromosome pair

Metaphase Metaphase I

Anaphase Anaphase I
Telophase Daughter Telophase I
cells of Haploid
meiosis I n3

2n 2n MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells n n n n
of mitosis Daughter cells of meiosis II
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 A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
SUMMARY
Property Mitosis Meiosis
DNA Occurs during interphase before Occurs during interphase before meiosis I begins
replication mitosis begins
Number of One, including prophase, metaphase, Two, each including prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
divisions anaphase, and telophase and telophase
Synapsis of Does not occur Occurs during prophase I along with crossing over
homologous between nonsister chromatids; resulting chiasmata
chromosomes hold pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion
Number of Two, each diploid (2n) and genetically Four, each haploid (n), containing half as many
daughter cells identical to the parent cell chromosomes as the parent cell; genetically different
and genetic from the parent cell and from each other
composition
Role in the Enables multicellular adult to arise from Produces gametes; reduces number of chromosomes
animal body zygote; produces cells for growth, repair, by half and introduces genetic variability among the
and, in some species, asexual reproduction gametes

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