X-Ray Computed Tomography

Adnan Rauf.
Assistant Professor,
Biomedical Engineering Center,
UET Lahore, New Campus
KSK.

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 Limitation of Conventional X-
Rays
 There are two main limitations of using
“Conventional X-Rays” to examine internal
structures of the body.
 The super-imposition of the three
dimensional information onto a single plane
makes diagnosis confusing and often
difficult.

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 Limitation of Conventional X-
Rays
 Secondly, the photographic film usually used for
making Radiographs has a limited dynamic
range
And
 Therefore, only object that have large variations
in X-ray absorption relative to their surroundings
will cause sufficient contrast differences on the
film to be distinguished by the eye.

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 Limitation of Conventional X-
Rays
 Because of this, details of bony structures
can be clearly seen, it is difficult to discern
the shape and composition of soft tissue
organs accurately.

 Problem?

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 Detection of Tumors
 In such situations, growths and abnormalities
within the tissue only show a very small contrast
difference on the film and consequently, it is
extremely difficult to detect them, even after
using various injected contrast media.
 The problem becomes even more serious while
carrying out studies of the brain due to its overall
shielding of the soft tissue by the dense b one of
the skull.

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Detection of Tumors

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Detection of Tumors

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 Introduction to CT
 Various techniques have been applied in an
effort to overcome these limitations, but the
most powerful technique which has shown
dramatic results is computed tomography,
which was invented and developed by G. N.
Hounsfield at the “Central Research
Laboratories” of UK and introduced it on a
commercial scale in 1972.
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 Introduction to CT
 “Tomography” is a term derived from the
Greek word “Tomos”, meaning “To write a
slice or section” and is well-understood in
radiographic circles.
 In this arrangement, the X-ray tube and
photographic film are moved in synchronization
so that one plane of the patient under
examination remains in focus, while all other
planes are blurred.
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 Basic Principle
 Computed Tomography enabled radiologists
to distinguish, for the first time, between
different types of brain tissue, and even
between normal and coagulated blood.

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 Basic Principle
 Computed tomography differs from
conventional X-ray techniques in that the
pictures displayed are not photographs but
are reconstructed from a large number of
absorption profiles taken at regular angular
intervals around a slice.

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12
Basic Principle

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 Basic Principle
 If a slice of heterogeneous tissue is
irradiated and we divide the slice into
volume elements or “Voxels”, So each
voxel will have its own attenuation
coefficient and the sum of all voxels will be
measured by the beam intensities for a
given voxel width.

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 Modern CT Scanner
1. Gantry aperture
(720mm
diameter)
2. Microphone
3. Laser alignment
light
4. Patient guide
lights
5. X-ray exposure
light
6. Emergency stop
buttons
7. Gantry control
panels
8. External laser
lights
9. Patient couch 16
10. ECG monitor
 CT Gantry – Internal Structure
1. X-ray tube
2. Filters, Collimator,
and Reference
detector
3. Internal projector
4. X-ray tube heat
exchanger (oil cooler)
5. High voltage
generator
6. Gantry motor
7. Rotation control unit
8. Data acquisition
system (DAS)
9. Detectors
10. Slip rings 17
 Block Diagram
 Figure shows a block diagram of the
system.
 The X-ray source and detectors are
mounted opposite to each other in a rigid
gantry with the patient lying in between, and
by moving one or both of these around and
across the relevant sections, which is how
the measurements are made.
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Block Diagram

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Detail of the Block Diagram

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 Detail of the Block Diagram
 The patient lies on a motorized couch and is moved
into the aperture of the gantry, with the location to
be accurately determined by means of a narrow
strip of light that falls on the body from the gantry
and illuminates the section to be examined.
 From the key board on the operating console,
details such as, the patient’s code, the name of the
hospital, etc, are fed into the system and settings
for X-ray parameters for the scan are made.

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 Detail of the Block Diagram
 In one system which employs 18 traverses
in the 20s scanning cycle 3,24,000 (18 x 30
x 600) X-ray transmission readings are
taken and stored by the computer.
 These are obtained by integrating the
outputs of the 30 detectors with
approximately 600 position pulses.

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 Detail of the Block Diagram
 The detectors are usually sodium-iodide
crystals, which are thallium doped to prevent
an after glow.
 The detectors absorb the X-ray photons and
emit the energy as visible light. This is
converted to electrons by a photo-multiplier
tube and then amplified.

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 Detail of the Block Diagram
 Analog outputs from these tubes go through
signal conditioning circuitry that amplifies,
clips and shapes the signals.

 Analog to digital converter then prepares

these signals for the computer.

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 Detail of the Block Diagram
 Simultaneously, a separate reference
detector continuously measures the
intensity of the primary X-ray beam.

 The reference readings taken at the end of

each traverse are used to continually
calibrate the detection system and the
necessary correction is carried out.
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 Scanning Methods

 Digital projection:
Anterior - Posterior, Posterior – Anterior, Latéral
or Oblique projection

 Conventional CT (Axial CT)

 Volumetric CT (Helical or Spiral CT)

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 Digital Projection

 X-ray tube and detector

remain stationary

 Patient table moves

continuously

 Produces an image
covering a range of 27

anatomy
 Axial CT
 X-ray tube and detector
rotate 360°

 Patient table is stationary

 Produces one cross-

sectional image

 Once this is complete

tube & detector
arrangement moves to 28

the next position.

 Volumetric CT
 X-ray tube and
detector rotate
360°

 Patient table
moves
continuously

 Produces a
helix of image
information 29
 Terminologies
 Hounsfield Unit (HU): Mean attenuation of x-rays by
different tissues.
 Data Acquisition: Method by which the patient is
scanned to obtain enough data for image
reconstruction.
 Beam Geometry: The size, shape, and motion of the
x-ray beam and its path.
 Ray: Part of the beam that falls on the detector.
 Scan plane: Region where the x-ray tube and30
detectors rotate.
 Terminologies (Cont.)
Attenuation:
 The reduction of the
beam intensity on
passing through the
material due to
absorption plus scatter.
 The degree of
attenuation is obtained
by measuring and
comparing the incident
and transmitted 31

intensities.
 Contrast Scale
 The linear attenuation coefficient of tissue is
represented by the scanner computer as
integers that usually range in values from –
ve 1000 to +ve 1000.

 Theseintegers have been given the name

“Hounsfield Units” and are abbreviated as H.

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 Contrast Scale
 The relationship between the linear
attenuation coefficient and the corresponding
Hounsfield unit is

 Where µwater = Attenuation Coefficient of

Water
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Block Diagram

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 Contrast Scale
 The CT number scale is defined in such a
way that 0 is assigned to water and -1000 to
air.

 Thevalue +1000 represents highly dense

materials.

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CT Number Scale

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 Useful Links
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=9SUHgtREWQc

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Thank You

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