Solid Solutions

Introduction to Solid Solutions

 When two metals are mixed together they form an alloy, if one
metal is soluble in the other one in solid state. Therefore, an alloy is
a solid solution of two or more metals.
 Primarily there are two types of solid solutions –
 Substitutional – Solute atoms occupy the regular lattice sites of the parent
metal (solvent). Substitutional solid solutions can be Disordered (Random)
(Cu-Ni) or Ordered (Cu-Au).
 Interstitial – Solute atoms occupy the interstitial positions (Steel – C solute
atoms in Fe).
Solid Solutions
 Hume-Rothery Rules
Formation of substitutional solid solutions between two metals is governed by a set of rules
known as Hume-Rothery rules
 Crystal Structure factor: For complete solubility over the entire range of compositions
the crystal structures of the solute and the solvent must be the same.
 Chemical Affinity factor: Lesser the chemical affinity higher with be the solubility.
Generally nearer the elements in the periodic table, lesser would be chemical affinity.
 Relative Size factor: Size difference between the atoms of solute and the parent metal
should be less than 15%.
 Electron Negativity: The electronegativity difference between the metals should be small
(minimum chemical affinity to each other).
 Relative Valence factor: The solubility of a metal with lower valence in a solvent of higher
is more compared to the reverse situation e.g. Ni is much more soluble in Al than Al in Ni.
 Intermediate Phases
 As the name suggest intermediate structures formed between two metals
are neither the parent metals nor like an alloy.
 When an intermediate phase is formed the elements lose their individual
identity and properties to a great extent and the compound formed will
have its own characteristic physical, chemical and mechanical properties.
 Eg1: Table salt. Navery active and oxidizes rapidly and stored in kerosene. Cl 
toxic gas. But NaCl together become very useful.
 Eg2: Water. H2O is compound of gaseous elements but is a liquid at room
temperature.
 Eg3:Steel can be entirely α – ferrite of iron and carbon or exist along an
intermediate phase called Fe3C.
 Intermediate Phases
The intermediate phases can be classified into 3 groups
Intermetallic - Valence Compounds
 When intermediate phases are exclusively metal-to-metal systems.
 Generally found between chemically dissimilar metals, elements
have high difference in electronegativity etc.
 Usually a non-metallic, poor ductility and poor conductive element
 Eg: Mg2Pb, Mg2Sn etc
 Intermediate Phases
Interstitial Compounds
 These compounds are made more or less similar to interstitial solid
solutions except that they have almost fixed composition.
 Generally metallic in nature, with high melting points and extreme
hardness.
 Eg: Fe3C [6.63%]  Cementite
 Intermediate Phases
Electron Compounds
 These compounds are of variable compositions and do not obey
valency law but have a definite electron to atom ratio.
 Eg: 3:2  CuZn
 Solidification of Metals
 It is the process where liquid metal transforms into solid upon cooling.
 The properties of solidified metal depends upon the its microstructure and
microstructure in turn depends upon the solidification mechanism employed to
freeze the metal.
 The rate of cooling of liquid metals, the type of mould used, the temperature at
which metal is poured into the mould are all part of solidification studies.
 Transformation from liquid metal to solid metal is accompanied by a shrinkage in
the volume which happens in three stages;
 Liquid – Liquid
 Liquid – Solid
 Solid - Solid
 Solidification of Metals
 Cooling curve of Pure Metals
 Mechanism of Solidification in Pure
Metals & Alloys
 Solidification of Liquid metal consists of 2 stages;
 Nucleation of Minute Crystals
 Growth of Crystals into Grains
Nucleation and Growth Transformation
 Nucleation and Growth Transformation
Nucleation and Growth Transformation may be of 2 types;
 Homogeneous Nucleation:
 When nucleation takes place in a liquid metal without the help of any impurities.

 Heterogeneous Nucleation
 When nucleation takes place in a liquid metal with the help of any impurities.
 The impurities could be insoluble particles like sand, alloying elements or any foreign
agent deliberately added to initiate nucleation and solidification.
Dendrites
 Solidification of Metals
 Cooling curve of Pure Metals
 Solidification of Metals
 Cooling curve of Pure Metals (Undercooling / Supercooling)
 Solidification of Metals
 Cooling curve of Alloys
Grain Structure
Factors affecting grain structure
a) Pouring temperature
b) Mass of metal
c) Mould material
d) Thermal conductivity
e) Composition of alloy

Types of grain structures

a) Columnar Grains
b) Partially Columnar &
Partially Equiaxed Grains
c) Equiaxed Grains
 Strengthening Mechanisms
• Solution Hardening/Solid Solution Hardening
• Work/Strain Hardening (or) Cold Working
• Grain Boundary Strengthening Mechanism
Solution Hardening/Solid Solution
Hardening
Work/Strain Hardening (or)
Cold Working
Grain Boundary Strengthening Mechanism

• Hall-Petch equation

• ‘σyp‘ - yield point stress

• ‘σo‘ - is the strength of one crystal and
• ‘k’ - Hall-Petch constant
• ‘d’ – mean grain diameter
Hall-Petch plot for MS
Recovery and Recrystallization
Recovery and Recrystallization