Chapter 6

An Introduction to
Viruses

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 The Search for the Elusive Virus
• Louis Pasteur postulated that rabies was
caused by a virus (1884)

• Ivanovski and Beijerinck showed a disease in

tobacco was caused by a virus (1890s)

• 1950s virology was a multifaceted discipline

– Viruses: noncellular particles with a definite
size, shape, and chemical composition
2
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 The Position of Viruses in the
Biological Spectrum
• There is no universal
agreement on how and
when viruses originated
• Viruses are considered
the most abundant
microbes on earth
• Viruses played a role in
the evolution of Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya
• Viruses are obligate
intracellular parasites

3
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 General Size of Viruses
• Size range – most <0.2 μm; requires electron
microscope

4
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 Viral Structure
• Viruses bear no resemblance to cells
– Lack protein-synthesizing machinery
• Viruses contain only the parts needed to invade
and control a host cell

5
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 General Structure of Viruses
• Capsids
– All viruses have capsids
(protein coats that enclose and
protect their nucleic acid)
– The capsid together with the
nucleic acid is the
nucleocapsid
– Some viruses have an external
covering called an envelope;
those lacking an envelope are
naked
– Each capsid is made of
identical protein subunits called
capsomers

6
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 General Structure of Viruses
• Two structural
capsid types:
– Helical - continuous
helix of capsomers
forming a cylindrical
nucleocapsid
– Icosahedral

7
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 General Structure of Viruses Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Two structural (a) Capsomers

Facet

capsid types:
Capsomers

Vertex

– Helical -
Nucleic

– Icosahedral - acid

20-sided with 12 (b)

corners
Capsomers

Vertex
Fiber

(c)

(d) © Dr. Linda Stannard, UCT/Photo Researchers, Inc.

8
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 General Structure of Viruses
• Viral envelope
– Mostly animal viruses
– Acquired when the virus leaves the host cell
– Exposed proteins on the outside of the envelope,
called spikes, are essential for attachment of the
virus to the host cell

9
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 Functions of Capsid/Envelope Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Protects the nucleic acid

when the virus is outside
of the host cell

• Helps the virus bind to a Capsomers

© Dr. Linda Stannard, UCT/Photo Researchers, Inc.

cell surface and assists (a)

Fred P. Williams, Jr./EPA

the penetration of the Envelope CapsidDNA core

viral DNA or RNA into a

suitable host cell

© Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.

(b)
10
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 General Structure of Viruses
• Complex viruses: atypical viruses
– Poxviruses lack a typical capsid and are covered by a
dense layer of lipoproteins
– Some bacteriophages have a polyhedral nucleocapsid
along with a helical tail and attachment fibers

11
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 Types of Viruses

12
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 Concept Check:
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

How would you describe this virus?

A. Icosahedral and Naked

B. Helical and Naked
C. Complex and Naked
D. Icosahedral and Enveloped
E. Helical and Enveloped
F. Complex and Enveloped
13
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 Concept Check:
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

How would you describe this virus?

A. Icosahedral and Naked

B. Helical and Naked
C. Complex and Naked
D. Icosahedral and Enveloped
E. Helical and Enveloped
F. Complex and Enveloped © Dennis Kunkel/CNRI/Phototake
14
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 Nucleic Acids
• Viral genome – either DNA or RNA but never
both

• Carries genes necessary to invade host cell and

redirect cell’s activity to make new viruses

• Number of genes varies for each type of virus –

few to hundreds

15
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 Nucleic Acids
• DNA viruses
– Usually double stranded (ds) but may be single
stranded (ss)
– Circular or linear
• RNA viruses
– Usually single stranded, may be double stranded, may
be segmented into separate RNA pieces
– ssRNA genomes ready for immediate translation are
positive-sense RNA
– ssRNA genomes that must be converted into proper
form are negative-sense RNA

16
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 General Structure
• Pre-formed enzymes may be present
– Polymerases – DNA or RNA
– Replicases – copy RNA
– Reverse transcriptase – synthesis of DNA
from RNA (AIDS virus)

17
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 How Viruses Are Classified
• Main criteria presently used are structure, chemical
composition, and genetic makeup

• Currently recognized: 3 orders, 63 families, and 263

genera of viruses

• Family name ends in -viridae, i.e.Herpesviridae

• Genus name ends in -virus, Simplexvirus

• Herpes simplex virus I (HSV-I)

18
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 Human Viruses & Viral Diseases

19
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 Human Viruses & Viral Diseases

20
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 Modes of Viral Multiplication
General phases in animal virus multiplication cycle:
1. Adsorption – binding of virus to specific molecules on
the host cell
2. Penetration – genome enters the host cell
3. Uncoating – the viral nucleic acid is released from the
capsid
4. Synthesis – viral components are produced
5. Assembly – new viral particles are constructed
6. Release – assembled viruses are released by
budding (exocytosis) or cell lysis

21
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 Animal Virus Multiplication

22
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 Adsorption and Host Range
• Virus coincidentally collides with a susceptible host cell and
adsorbs specifically to receptor sites on the membrane
• Spectrum of cells a virus can infect – host range
– Hepatitis B – human liver cells
– Poliovirus – primate intestinal and nerve cells
– Rabies – various cells of many mammals
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Envelope spike
Host cell membrane
Capsid spike

Receptor

Host cell
membrane

Receptor

(a) (b) 23
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 Penetration/Uncoating
• Flexible cell membrane is penetrated by the
whole virus or its nucleic acid by:
– Endocytosis – entire virus is engulfed and
enclosed in a vacuole or vesicle
– Fusion – envelope merges directly with
membrane resulting in nucleocapsid’s
entry into cytoplasm

24
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Variety in Penetration and Uncoating

25
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Replication and Protein Production
• Varies depending on whether the virus is a
DNA or RNA virus
• DNA viruses generally are replicated and
assembled in the nucleus
• RNA viruses generally are replicated and
assembled in the cytoplasm
– Positive-sense RNA contain the message for
translation
– Negative-sense RNA must be converted into
positive-sense message

26
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 Release
• Assembled viruses leave the host Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

cell in one of two ways:

– Budding – exocytosis;
nucleocapsid binds to membrane
which pinches off and sheds the
viruses gradually; cell is not
immediately destroyed
– Lysis – nonenveloped and
complex viruses released when (b) © Chris Bjornberg/Photo Researchers, Inc.

cell dies and ruptures

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Viral nucleocapsid
Host cell membrane
Viral glycoprotein spikes

Cytoplasm

Capsid

RNA

Budding Free infectious

virion virion with envelope
Viral matrix
(a) protein 27
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 Concept Check:

Viruses commonly contain both DNA and RNA

A. False
B. True

28
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 Concept Check:
Viruses commonly contain both DNA and RNA.

A. True
B. False

29
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 Damage to Host Cell
Cytopathic effects - virus-
induced damage to cells
1. Changes in size and shape
2. Cytoplasmic inclusion
bodies
3. Inclusion bodies
4. Cells fuse to form
multinucleated cells
5. Cell lysis
6. Alter DNA
7. Transform cells into
cancerous cells

30
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 Effects of Some Human Viruses

31
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 Persistent Infections
• Persistent infections - cell harbors the virus and
is not immediately lysed
• Can last weeks or host’s lifetime; several can
periodically reactivate – chronic latent state
– Measles virus – may remain hidden in brain cells for
many years
– Herpes simplex virus – cold sores and genital herpes
– Herpes zoster virus – chickenpox and shingles

32
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 Viral Damage
• Some animal viruses enter the host cell and
permanently alter its genetic material resulting in
cancer – transformation of the cell
• Transformed cells have an increased rate of growth,
alterations in chromosomes, and the capacity to
divide for indefinite time periods resulting in tumors
• Mammalian viruses capable of initiating tumors are
called oncoviruses
– Papillomavirus – cervical cancer
– Epstein-Barr virus – Burkitt’s lymphoma

33
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Multiplication Cycle in Bacteriophages
• Bacteriophages – bacterial viruses (phages)
• Most widely studied are those that infect
Escherichia coli – complex structure, DNA
• Multiplication goes through similar stages as
animal viruses
• Only the nucleic acid enters the cytoplasm -
uncoating is not necessary
• Release is a result of cell lysis induced by
viral enzymes and accumulation of viruses -
lytic cycle

34
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 Steps in Phage Replication
1. Adsorption – binding of virus to specific
molecules on host cell
2. Penetration – genome enters host cell
3. Replication – viral components are produced
4. Assembly – viral components are assembled
5. Maturation – completion of viral formation
6. Lysis & Release – viruses leave the cell to
infect other cells

35
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 Multiplication of Bacteriophage
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E. coli host
7 Release of viruses
Bacteriophage

Bacterial Viral
Lysogenic State DNA DNA

1 Adsorption

Viral DNA becomes 2 Penetration 6Lysis of weakened cell

latent as prophage.

Lytic
Cycle

Spliced
DNA
viral
splits genome
3 Duplication of phage 5 Maturation
components; replication of
virus genetic material
Viral Bacterial
DNA DNA molecule

Capsid
DNA
The lysogenic state in bacteria.
The viral DNA molecule is inserted at
specific sites on the bacterial
chromosome. The viral DNA is

duplicated along with the regular Tail Tail fibers
genome and can provide adaptive 4 Assembly of Sheath
genes for the host bacterium. new virions

Bacteriophage

Bacteriophage assembly line.

First the capsomers are synthesized by
the host
cell. A strand of viral nucleic acid is
inserted
during capsid formation. In final 36
assembly, the
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McGraw-Hill
together Education.
into whole
Comparison of Bacteriophage and Animal Virus
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Head

Bacterial
cell wall

Tube

Viral nucleic acid

Cytoplasm

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© K.G. Murti/Visuals Unlimited

37
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 Concept Check:
Which of the following is a step found in animal virus
multiplication but not in bacteriophage replication?

A. Adsorption
B. Penetration
C. Uncoating
D. Assembly
E. Release
38
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 Concept Check:
Which of the following is a step found in animal virus
multiplication but not in bacteriophage replication?

A. Adsorption
B. Penetration
C. Uncoating
D. Assembly
E. Release
39
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Lysogeny: The Silent Virus Infection
• Not all phages complete the lytic cycle
• Some DNA phages, called temperate phages, undergo
adsorption and penetration but don’t replicate
• The viral genome inserts into bacterial genome and
becomes an inactive prophage – the cell is not lysed
• Prophage is retained and copied during normal cell
division resulting in the transfer of temperate phage
genome to all host cell progeny – lysogeny
• Induction can occur resulting in activation of lysogenic
prophage followed by viral replication and cell lysis

40
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 Lytic and Lysogenic Lifecycles
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E. coli host
7 Release of viruses
Bacteriophage

Bacterial Viral
Lysogenic State DNA DNA

1 Adsorption

Viral DNA becomes 2 Penetration 6Lysis of weakened cell

latent as prophage.

Lytic
Cycle

Spliced
DNA
viral
splits
genome
3 Duplication of phage 5 Maturation
components; replication of
virus genetic material
Viral Bacterial
DNA DNA molecule

Capsid
DNA
The lysogenic state in bacteria.
The viral DNA molecule is inserted at
specific sites on the bacterial
chromosome. The viral DNA is

duplicated along with the regular Tail Tail fibers
genome and can provide adaptive 4 Assembly of Sheath
genes for the host bacterium. new virions

Bacteriophage

Bacteriophage assembly line.

First the capsomers are synthesized by
the host
cell. A strand of viral nucleic acid is
inserted
during capsid formation. In final 41
assembly, the
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components McGraw-Hill Education.
into whole
 Lysogeny
• Lysogeny results in the spread of the virus
without killing the host cell
• Phage genes in the bacterial chromosome can
cause the production of toxins or enzymes that
cause pathology – lysogenic conversion
– Corynebacterium diphtheriae
– Vibrio cholerae
– Clostridium botulinum

42
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 Techniques in Cultivating and
Identifying Animal Viruses
• Obligate intracellular parasites that require
appropriate cells to replicate
• Methods used:
– Cell (tissue) cultures – cultured cells grow in sheets that
support viral replication and permit observation for
cytopathic effects
– Bird embryos – incubating egg is an ideal system; virus
is injected through the shell
– Live animal inoculation – occasionally used when
necessary

43
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Methods for Growing Viruses

44
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 Medical Importance of Viruses
• Viruses are the most common cause of acute
infections
• Several billion viral infections per year
• Some viruses have high mortality rates
• Possible connection of viruses to chronic
afflictions of unknown cause
• Viruses are major participants in the earth’s
ecosystem

45
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 Detection and Treatment of
Animal Viral Infections
• More difficult than other agents
• Consider overall clinical picture
• Take appropriate sample
– Infect cell culture – look for characteristic
cytopathic effects
– Screen for parts of the virus
– Screen for immune response to virus (antibodies)
• Antiviral drugs can cause serious side effects

46
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 Prions and Other Infectious Particles
Prions - misfolded proteins, contain no nucleic acid
– Extremely resistant to usual sterilization
techniques
– Cause transmissible spongiform
encephalopathies – fatal neurodegenerative
diseases

47
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 Prions Diseases
Common in animals:
• Scrapie in sheep and goats
• Bovine spongiform encephalopathies (BSE),
a.k.a. mad cow disease
• Wasting disease in elk
• Humans – Creutzfeldt-Jakob Syndrome (CJS)

48
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Other Noncellular Infectious Agents
• Satellite viruses – dependent on other viruses
for replication
– Adeno-associated virus – replicates only in cells
infected with adenovirus
– Delta agent – naked strand of RNA expressed only
in the presence of hepatitis B virus

• Viroids – short pieces of RNA, no protein coat;

only been identified in plants

49
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 Concept Check:
Exposure to Nucleases that degrade DNA and RNA would
damage all of the following EXCEPT
A. Animal Viruses
B. Bacteriophage
C. Prions
D. Satellite Viruses
E. Viroids

50
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 Concept Check:
Exposure to Nucleases that degrade DNA and RNA would
damage all of the following EXCEPT
A. Animal Viruses
B. Bacteriophage
C. Prions
D. Satellite Viruses
E. Viroids

51
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