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Cellular Reproduction:
Cells from Cells

Cell Division
Cell Division — process by which
a cell divides into 2 new cells
• Why do cells need to divide?

1.Living things grow by
producing more cells, NOT
because each cell increases in
size
2.Repair of damaged tissue
3.If cell gets too big, it cannot
get enough nutrients into the
cell and wastes out of the cell
CELL DIVISION
• Cellular reproduction consists of making copies of all internal
components of the cell, positioning those components, and then
dividing the cell so that the new cells receive a copy of each of the
important internal components.
• Prokaryotic cells reproduce by binary fission.
• They grow to a size sufficient to divide into two 2 cells, replicate
their DNA (so that they have two DNA molecules) and then build
a new cell membrane between the two DNA molecules.
All cell division is preceded by
DNA replication.
Copyright © The McGraw-

Hill Companies, Inc.
9-4
Permission required for
•DNA replication in prokaryotes begins at a single point on the
circular double stranded DNA molecule, the replication origin.
• DNA is replicated in both directions from the replication origin,
until there are two complete double stranded DNA molecules.
•Each of the double stranded molecules consists of one of the
original strands and one new strand.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Uses of Binary Fission
and Mitosis
 In single-celled organisms
– Mitosis and binary fission are means of asexual
reproduction.
 In multi-cellular organisms mitosis:
– Causes growth by increasing the number of cells
– Replaces lost cells
– Repairs injuries
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Uses of Meiosis
 Sexual reproduction involves the donation of

genetic information from two parents.
– Each parent can only donate half of the genome.
 Meiosis occurs prior to sexual reproduction.
– Generates gametes (egg and sperm) with half of
a genome
– The egg and sperm then join during fertilization to
make a unique offspring with a full complement of
genetic information.
•Cell division in eukaryotic cells is more complex.
•The DNA of eukaryotes is distributed among many chromosomes and the

chromosomes are contained within the nucleus.
•The chromosomes must be replicated and then organized in a way that

ensures that each of the daughter cells receives one copy of each
chromosome.
•The process of organizing and distributing chromosomes is called

mitosis.
• Humans have 46 chromosomes, that carry approximately 25,000 genes.
•If mitosis happens properly, each daughter cell gets one copy of each
chromosome.
9-9
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
• The DNA in a cell is packed into an elaborate,

multilevel system of coiling and folding.
• Histones are proteins used to package DNA in
eukaryotes.
• Nucleosomes consist of DNA wound around
histone molecules.

Figure 8.4
DNA double helix

Histones
“Beads
on a
string”
TEM
Nucleosome
Duplicated
chromosomes
(sister TEM
chromatids) Centromere
DNA
• DNA is located in the nucleus and controls all cell
activities including cell division
• Long and thread-like DNA in a non-dividing cell is called
chromatin
• Doubled, coiled, short DNA in a dividing cell is called
chromosome
Consists of 2 parts: chromatid and centromere

•Chromatin to chromosomes illustration:
Duplicates Coils up into

Chromatin itself chromosomes
More efficient division
Why does DNA need to change It's more difficult
from chromatin to chromosome? to divide long thin strands
of DNA than compacted,
smaller chromosome.
Cell Cycle -- series of events cells go through as
they grow and divide
•Cell grows, prepares for division, then divides to
form 2 daughter cells – each of which then begins
the cycle again

The Cell Cycle
 Eukaryotic cells
– Pass through different
stages between the
time they are “born”
and the time they
divide again
– A continuous process
– Includes interphase
and mitosis
Interphase—period of cell growth and development
•DNA replication (copying) occurs during Interphase
•During Interphase the cell also grows, carries out
normal cell activities, replicates all other organelles
•The cell spends most of its life cycle in Interphase
Interphase-G1
 The three phases of interphase

– G1
 The cell gathers nutrients, carries out its regular
metabolic roles, and performs its normal function.
 Prepares for DNA replications
 Some cells enter a resting stage - called G0 - where
they don’t grow and aren’t preparing for another
cell division.
 nerve and muscle cells
Figure 8.5
Chromosome
duplication
Sister
chromatids
Chromosome
distribution to
daughter cells

Interphase-S
 S phase
– DNA replication occurs.
– The DNA in chromosomes is
wrapped around histones.
 DNA + histones =
chromatin
– When S phase is complete
 The identical copies are
connected together.
 Each is called a sister
chromatid.
– Connected at the
centromere
Interphase-G2
 During G2
– Final preparations
are made for
mitosis.
– Proteins are made
that will move and
separate the
chromosomes.
Mitosis-cell Replication
 The two events of cell division

– Mitosis
 Separating the chromosome copies into two
new nuclei
 Occurs in four phases that are continuous with
one another
– Cytokinesis
 Dividingthe cytoplasm into two new cells that
will house the new nuclei
Prophase
 The thin, tangled

chromatin gradually
coils and thickens.
– Becomes visible as
separate chromosomes,
each with two sister
chromatids
 Nucleus disassembles.
 Nucleolus is no longer
visible.
Late Prophase
 Spindle fibers attach to

chromosomes at their
centromeres.
– Spindles are made of
microtubules.
 In animals, they form
from the centrioles.
– Will move chromosomes
around.
Copyright © The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
9-25
Permission required for
Metaphase
 The spindle fibers move the

chromosomes so that they are all
arranged at the middle of the cell.
– This is called the equatorial plate.
– Chromosomes complete this process at
metaphase.
Metaphase
Anaphase
 Sister chromatids separate and move toward

opposite poles.
– Once the sister chromatids are separated, they
are known as daughter chromosomes.
 What moves the sister chromatids to
opposite poles?
– The poles begin to move farther apart.
– The kinetochore (proteins attached at the
centromere) pulls the chromatid along the spindle
fiber.
Anaphase
Telophase
 Spindle fibers
disassemble.
 Nuclear membranes
form around the two
new sets of
chromosomes.
 Chromatin uncoils.
 Nucleolus reforms.
 The daughter cells
enter interphase again.
Cytokinesis
 Separates the two new nuclei
into new cells
 Roughly divides the cytoplasm
and its contents in half
 Animal cells
– Membrane forms a
cleavage furrow
– Cell pinches into two
 Plant cells
– Cell plate is formed.
– A new cell wall is built,
separating the nuclei.
Controlling Cell Division
 Cells gather information about themselves and their

environment in order to decide whether or not to
divide.
 A cell decides whether to proceed through the cell
cycle at checkpoints.
– Cells evaluate their genetic health, their location in the body
and the body’s need for more cells.
 Poor genetic health, wrong location in the body or over-
crowding will cause the cell to wait before dividing.
 The opposite signals will trigger the cell to proceed with
division.
Genes Regulate the Cell Cycle
 Cells use several proteins to function as

checkpoints.
– These proteins make the decision to proceed through the
cell cycle or to stop.
 Two classes of genes that code for checkpoint
proteins
– Proto-oncogenes
 Code for proteins that encourage cell division
– Tumor-suppressor genes
 Code for proteins that discourage cell division
 The balance of these two types of proteins tells the
cell whether or not to proceed with cell division.
p53, a Tumor-suppressor Gene
 Near the end of G1, the p53 protein identifies if the

cell’s DNA is damaged.
– If the DNA is healthy, the p53 allows the cell to divide.
– If the DNA is damaged, p53 activates other proteins that will
repair the DNA.
 If the damage is too severe, p53 will trigger the events of
apoptosis (cell suicide).
 Mutations in the p53 gene
– Lead to cells that will proceed through the cell cycle with
damaged DNA
– Lead to an accumulation of mutations
 If the mutations occur in proto-oncogenes or tumor-suppressor
genes, then cancer will result.
p53, a Tumor-suppressor Gene
Cancer
 Cancer is caused by a failure to control cell

division.
– Leads to cells that divide too frequently
– These cell masses are tumors that can interfere
with normal body functions.
 Benign tumors are cell masses that do not fragment and
spread.
 Malignant tumors are cell masses that fragment, spread
and invade other tissues.
– This process is called metastasis.
– p53 is mutated in 40% of all cancers.
 Leads to other mutations that result in cancer
Malignant Tumors Metastasize
Causes of Cancer
 Mutagens are agents that damage DNA.

 Carcinogens are mutagens that cause
mutations that lead to cancer.
– Cigarette smoke
 Has been linked directly to p53 mutations
Inherited Cancer
• Multiple genetic changes are required to produce a

cancer cell.
• This helps explain the observation that cancers can
run in families.
• An individual inheriting an oncogene or a mutant
version of a tumor-suppressor gene is one step
closer to accumulating the necessary mutations for
cancer.
• Geneticists are therefore devoting much effort to
identifying inherited cancer mutations so that
predisposition to certain cancers can be detected
early in life.

Inherited Cancer
• About 15% of colorectal cancers involve inherited

mutations.
• There is also evidence that inheritance plays a role
in 5–10% of patients with breast cancer, a disease
that strikes one out of every ten American women.

Treatment Strategies ̶ Surgery
 Surgical removal
– Once tumors are identified they can be
surgically removed.
– Skin cancers and breast cancers are
frequently treated this way.
– If the cancer is spread diffusely,
surgery is not an option.
Treatment Options ̶ Chemotherapy
and Radiation Therapy
 Chemotherapy
– Some drugs will target rapidly dividing cells.
– Normal cells that divide rapidly will suffer as well.
 Weakens the immune system
 Causes hair loss
 Radiation therapy
– Uses x-rays or gamma rays directed at the tumor
to kill the cancerous cells
– Whole-body radiation is used to treat leukemia.
 Can lead to radiation sickness
– Nausea, hair loss, etc.
Determination
and Differentiation
 During sexual reproduction, fertilization of an egg by

a sperm results in a single-celled zygote.
– The zygote undergoes mitosis to develop into an
adult.
– As mitosis occurs, cells must become specific cell
types.
 All cells are genetically identical.
 Cells differ in the genes they express.
 Determination is the process a cell goes through to select
which genes it will express, committing itself to becoming a
certain cell type.
 When a cell is fully developed into a specific type of cell, it is
said to be differentiated.
Determination and
Differentiation of Skin Cells
Haploid and Diploid Cells
Life Cycles Involving Meiosis
and Mitosis
Pairs of Chromosomes
 Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes.

– One set from each parent
 Homologous chromosomes
– Have the same order of genes along their DNA
– Are the same size; have the centromere in the
same location
– One chromosome in the pair came from mom; the
other came from dad.
 Non-homologous chromosomes
– Have different genes on their DNA
A Pair of Homologous
Chromosomes
Different Species Have Different
Numbers of Chromosomes
Meiosis-Gamete Production
 Involves two cell divisions

– Produces four haploid cells
– Meiosis I is the first division.
 Preceded by DNA replication
 Reduction division
– Chromosome number reduced from diploid to haploid
– Meiosis II is the second division.
Meiosis
Meiosis I: Prophase I
 Prophase I
– Synapsis occurs
 Homologous chromosomes move toward one another
and associate with one another.
 While associated homologs experience crossing over
– Homologs trade equivalent sections of DNA.
– Mixes up the genes that are passed to the next
generation
Longest and most complex
phase (90%).
Chromosomes condense.
Synapsis occurs - Homologous
chromosomes come together
to form a tetrad.
Tetrad is two chromosomes
or four chromatids (sister and
non-sister chromatids).
54
 Pairof chromosomes (maternal and
paternal) that are similar in shape and size.
 Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry GENES
controlling the SAME inherited traits.
 Each locus (position of a gene) is in the
same position on homologues. LOCI
 Humans have 23 pairs of homologous

chromosomes:
a. First 22 pairs of autosomes
b. Last pair of sex chromosomes
55
eye color eye color
locus locus
hair color hair color

locus locus
Paternal Maternal
56
 Crossing over may occur between
non-sister chromatids at sites called
chiasmata.
 Crossing over: segments of
nonsister chromatids break and
reattach to the other chromatid.
 Chiasmata (chiasma) are where
chromosomes touch each other and
exchange genes (crossing over.)
 Causes Genetic Recombination
57
nonsister chromatids Tetrad
chiasmata: site variation

of crossing over 58
59
Meiosis I
Homologs
separate
60
• Nucleus & Nucleolus disappear
• Spindle forms
• Chromosomes coil & Synapsis (pairing) occurs
• Tetrads form & Crossing over Occurs
spindle fiber
centrioles
aster
fibers
TETRAD 61
Meiosis I: Metaphase I
 Metaphase I:
– The synapsed pairs
of homologous
chromosomes are
moved into position
at the equatorial
plate.
Meiosis I: Anaphase I
 Homologous pairs separate.

– Homologs move to opposite poles.
 Sister chromatids do not separate at this point.
– This process is called segregation.
 Chromosome number is reduced from diploid
to haploid.
 Since homologous pairs line up randomly at
the equatorial plate,
– Each pair separates independently of the others.
 This is called independent assortment.
Anaphase I
Meiosis I: Telophase I
 Chromatin uncoils.
 Nuclear membrane
reforms.
 Nucleoli reappear.
 Cytokinesis divides the
two haploid nuclei into
two daughter cells.
– Each chromosome still
contains two sister
chromatids.
Meiosis I
Meiosis II: Prophase II
 Similar to prophase in
mitosis
 Nuclear membrane is
disassembled.
 Spindle begins to form.
Meiosis II: Metaphase II
 Similar to metaphase in
mitosis
 Chromosomes are lined
up at the equatorial
plate.
Meiosis II: Anaphase II
 Centromeres divide.
 Sister chromatids
separate.
– Now called daughter
chromosomes
Meiosis II: Telophase II
 Similar to telophase and cytokinesis in mitosis
Summary of Meiosis II
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Genetic Diversity ̶
The Advantage of Sex
 Sexually reproducing organisms

– Need two individuals to reproduce
– Reproduce more slowly than asexually
reproducing organisms
– Have large genetic diversity
 When environmental conditions change, they are more
likely to survive (as compared to asexually reproducing
organisms).
 Genetic diversity is due to a difference in genes.
– Specific versions of genes are called alleles.
Genetic Diversity ̶
The Advantage of Sex
 Five factors create genetic diversity by

creating new alleles, or new combinations of
alleles.
– Mutation
– Crossing-over
– Segregation
– Independent assortment
– Fertilization
Mutations
 Mutations are changes in the nucleotide

sequence of DNA.
 This creates new alleles.
 New alleles lead to new forms of proteins.
 Increases genetic diversity
Crossing-over
 The exchange of equivalent portions of DNA

between homologous chromosomes
 Occurs during prophase I when
chromosomes are synapsed
 Allows new combinations of genetic
information to occur
– Each gamete then receives some of your
mother’s and some of your father’s genes on
each chromosome.
Synapsis and Crossing-over
The Results of Crossing-over
Crossing-over Separates Linked
Genes
 The closer genes are
together on a
chromosome, the less
likely they will be
separated by crossing-
over.
– These genes will be
inherited together.
 The farther genes are
apart on a
chromosome, the more
likely they will be
separated by crossing-
over.
Segregation
 Alleles on homologous chromosomes

separate during anaphase I.
– Each parent will contribute one allele of each
gene to each gamete.
– Consider a person who has two alleles for insulin.
 Half of its gametes would get the gene for functional
insulin.
 Half of its gametes would get the gene for nonfunctional
gametes.
– If this gamete were used during fertilization, and was
joined with a gamete with the same gene, the offspring
would not be able to make functional insulin.
Independent Assortment
 The segregation of homologous

chromosomes is independent of how other
homologous pairs segregate.
 Consider two pairs of chromosomes.
– Given the two ways these pairs can line up on the
equatorial plate,
 There are four possible combinations of
chromosomes in gametes.
Independent Assortment
Fertilization
 Due to the large number of possible gametes

resulting from independent assortment,
segregation, mutation and crossing-over,
– A large number of different offspring can be
generated from two parents.
 Since gametes join randomly
– The combinations of alleles is nearly infinite.
Nondisjunction and
Chromosome Abnormalities
 Nondisjunctions occur when homologous
chromosomes do not separate during cell
division.
– Frequently results in the death of the cells
– Some abnormal gametes live.
 When these gametes participate in fertilization, the
offspring will have an abnormal number of chromosomes.
– Monosomy describes a cell that has just one of a given pair
of chromosomes.
– Trisomy describes a cell that has three copies of a given
chromosome.
Nondisjunction During
Gametogenesis
• To produce a karyotype, a technician can
• break open a human cell in metaphase of mitosis,
• stain the chromosomes with dyes,
• take a picture with the aid of a microscope, and
• arrange the chromosomes in matching pairs by size.

Karyotypes are a Picture
of a Person’s Chromosomes
A Karyotype can Reveal
Trisomy 21
 Down syndrome
– Three copies of
chromosome #21
– Results in 47 chromosomes
instead of 46
– Symptoms include:
 Thickened eyelids
 Mental impairment
 Faulty speech
• Humans have 46 chromosomes:
• 22 pairs of matching chromosomes, called
autosomes, and
• two different sex chromosomes, X and Y, which
determine a person’s sex (male or female).
• In mammals,
• males have one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome and
• females have two X chromosomes.

Figure 8.12
Haploid gametes (n = 23)
n Egg cell
n
Sperm cell
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
Multicellular Diploid
diploid adults zygote
(2n = 46) 2n
(2n = 46)
MITOSIS
and development Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Abnormal Numbers of Sex Chromosomes
• Nondisjunction in meiosis can lead to abnormal
numbers of sex chromosomes, X and Y.
• Unusual numbers of sex chromosomes seem to
upset the genetic balance less than unusual
numbers of autosomes.
• Table 8.1 lists the most common human sex
chromosome abnormalities.

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Cellular Reproduction:

Cells from Cells

• Why do cells need to divide?

Copyright © The McGraw-

 Sexual reproduction involves the donation of

•The DNA of eukaryotes is distributed among many chromosomes and the

•The chromosomes must be replicated and then organized in a way that

•The process of organizing and distributing chromosomes is called

• Humans have 46 chromosomes, that carry approximately 25,000 genes.

• The DNA in a cell is packed into an elaborate,

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

DNA double helix

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Duplicates Coils up into

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The three phases of interphase

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The two events of cell division

 The thin, tangled

 Spindle fibers attach to

 The spindle fibers move the

 Sister chromatids separate and move toward

 Cells gather information about themselves and their

 Cells use several proteins to function as

 Near the end of G1, the p53 protein identifies if the

 Cancer is caused by a failure to control cell

 Mutagens are agents that damage DNA.

• Multiple genetic changes are required to produce a

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

• About 15% of colorectal cancers involve inherited

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 During sexual reproduction, fertilization of an egg by

 Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes.

 Involves two cell divisions

 Humans have 23 pairs of homologous

hair color hair color

chiasmata: site variation

 Homologous pairs separate.

 Similar to telophase and cytokinesis in mitosis

 Sexually reproducing organisms

 Five factors create genetic diversity by

 Mutations are changes in the nucleotide

 The exchange of equivalent portions of DNA

 Alleles on homologous chromosomes

 The segregation of homologous

 Due to the large number of possible gametes

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

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