8 Analysis

Nursing Research
Data Analysis and

Interpretation
Copyright © 2018, 2012, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Introduction
• Term statistics derived from the Latin word for “state.”
• Statistics, as a singular noun, is a branch of knowledge
used to summarize and present numerical data.
• As a plural noun, statistics are numerical characteristics of
samples.
• Enables researchers to collect and analyze data
Key Concepts in Statistics (1 of 5)
• Parameters
– Used when discussing numerical characteristics of
populations
• Statistics
– Used when discussing numerical characteristics of
samples
• Statistical Symbols
– Greek letter mu μ  are used to designate population
parameters.
– English letters s or SD are used to designate sample
statistics.
Blank Population Sample Symbols

Symbols
Mean 
mu M, x x bar
Standard
Deviation 
row s, SD
Variance 
Sigma S squared, SD squared
s 2 ,SD 2
• Statistical Symbols
– In many research articles, words are used instead of
symbols.
 mean or average and M used more frequently
• Classifications of Statistics
– Descriptive statistics
 Organize and summarize numerical data collected
from samples
 Allows examination of study participants’
– Characteristics
– Behaviors
– Experiences
• Classifications of Statistics
– Inferential statistics
 Concerned with populations
 Use sample data to make an inference about a
population
 Help determine real differences versus chance
differences
 Determine the likelihood that the sample chosen for
a study is actually representative of the population.
Descriptive Statistics (1 of 27)
• Four classifications:
a) Measures to condense data
b) Measures of central tendency
c) Measures of variability
d) Measures of relationships
• Measures to Condense Data
– Used to summarize and condense data
– Includes
 Frequency distributions
 Graphic presentations
 Percentages
– Frequency Distributions
 Frequencies are obtained by counting the
occurrence of values or scores in the data.
 Appropriate for reporting all levels of data
– Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
 All values or scores are listed.
– Number of times each one appears is recorded.
 Helpful to use the familiar slash method of recording
frequencies:
– Four vertical lines (or forward slashes: ////) for
the first four occurrences
– A slash line (horizontal line or backward slash: —
or \) for the fifth occurrence
– Repeat until all scores are recorded.
 If distribution is small, score may be listed
individually.
 Range of scores is large, group scores before
counting frequencies.
– Groups are called class intervals.
– Intervals must be exhaustive and mutually
exclusive.
 Symmetrical distributions
– Both halves of distribution are the same.
 Nonsymmetrical or skewed distributions
– Distribution has off-center peak.
– Positively skewed
• Tail of distribution points right.
– Negatively skewed
• Tail of distribution points left.
 Normal distribution
– Symmetrical distribution
• One central peak or set of values in middle of
distribution
– Bell-shaped curve
• Sometimes called Gaussian curve
 Normal distribution is frequently found in nature.
 For a frequency distribution to approximate the
normal curve, a fairly large number of values are
needed.
 Would be wise to do a power analysis to determine
best sample size.
 Characteristics of a normal curve include:
1. Bell shaped with a symmetrical distribution; maximum
height is the mean.
2. Mean, median, and mode are same value.
3. Most values cluster around the mean.
4. A few values occur on both extreme ends of the
distribution curve.
5. Point where the curve begins to grow faster horizontally
than vertically is called an inflection point; lies at 1 S D
above and 1 SD below the mean.
6. Tails of the curve never touch the base.
– Graphic Presentations
 Data may be presented in a graphic form.
– Makes frequency distribution readily apparent
– Visually appealing
– According to the level of measurement of the
variable to be presented
– A graphic display is called a figure.
 Bar graph
– Represents frequency distribution of nominal
data and some types of ordinal data
– Useful when the categories of the variables are
qualitative
– Lengths of the bars represent the frequency of
occurrence of the category.
– Data are presented on only one variable in a bar
graph.
 Histogram
– Graph that uses bars to represent frequency
distribution of a variable
– Variables measured at ordinal, interval, or ratio level
– Data are presented on only one variable in a
histogram.
• Width of bar represents size of the class interval.
• Height of bar represents frequency of occurrence
of each class interval.
 Frequency polygon
– Graph using dots connected with straight lines
– Represents frequency distribution of ordinal, interval,
or ratio data
– Class intervals of the variable are represented on
horizontal axis of the frequency polygon.
– Frequencies of the class intervals are represented on
vertical axis.
– Height of each dot indicates frequency of a particular
class interval.
– Percentages
 Statistic representing the proportion of a subgroup
to a total group
 Expressed as a percentage ranging from 0 to 100
 Number of parts per hundred that a certain portion
of the whole represents
 Minimum number for the computation of
percentages should be at least 20.
• Measures of Central Tendency
– Statistics that describe the average, typical, or most
common value for a group of data.
– Central
 Refers to the middle or average value
– Tendency
 Refers to the general trend of the numbers to cluster
in a certain way.
– Mode
– Median
– Mean
– Mode
 Sometimes abbreviated as Mo
 Category or value that occurs most often
 Determined by visually analyzing and counting data
 Modal class
– Category with the greatest frequency
– Mode
 If distribution of values is symmetrical, mode is same
value as median and mean.
 Unimodal
– Set of data with one value that occurs most
frequently
 Bimodal
– Two values have the same high frequency.
 Multimodal.
– More than two values have the same high frequency.
– Median
 Sometimes abbreviated as Md or Mdn
 Middle score or value in a group of data
 Divides the frequency distribution of the data in half.
 Appropriate for ordinal, interval, and ratio data
 When percentiles are being calculated, median is
the 50th percentile.
– Mean
 Sometimes abbreviated as M or presented as X
(X-bar)
 Average sum of a set of values found by adding all
values and dividing by the total number of values
 Also called the arithmetic mean
 Considers all of the values as a whole
• Measures of Variability
– Describes spread of scores in a distribution
– Range
– Percentile
– Standard deviation
– Variance
– z-scores
– Range
 Distance between highest and lowest value in a
group
 Simplest measure of variability
 Presented as a single number
– Interquartile range
 Contains the middle half of the values
– Semiquartile range (SQR)
 Found by dividing the interquartile range in half
– Percentile
 Datum point below which lies a certain percentage
of the values
 Median of a frequency distribution lies at the 50th
percentile.
 Common statistic used to compare performance
with others
 Used a great deal in the assessment of infants and
children
– Standard deviation
 Most widely used measure of variability when
interval or ratio data are obtained
 Describes how values vary about the mean of the
distribution
 Abbreviated SD or s
 Measurement that indicates the average deviation
or variation of all the values in a set of values from
the mean value
– Variance
 Measure used in several inferential statistical tests
 Equal to sum of squared deviations about the mean,
divided by the total number of values.
– Z-scores
 Score indicating how many standard deviations from
the mean a particular value lies
 Interpreted in relation to SD units above or below
the mean
 Allow you to compare the performance of someone
on nonequivalent tests
Measures of Relationships (1 of 12)
• Concern the correlations between variables
– Correlation concerns the extent to which values of one
variable (X) are related to values of a second variable
(Y).
• Several ways to examine relationship:
– Correlation coefficients
– Scatter plots
– Contingency tables
– Correlational procedures
• Correlation Coefficients
– Magnitude and direction of relationship between two
variables
 Can vary between –1.00 and +1.00
– –1.00 indicates a perfect negative relationship
– +1.00 indicates a perfect positive relationship
– Zero (0) indicates the absence of any relationship.
– Positive relationship
 Two variables tend to increase or decrease together.
– Negative relationship
 As one variable increases, the other variable tends to
decrease.
– Generally calculated on measurements obtained from
each subject on two variables
 May be calculated on the measurements of one
variable obtained from two groups
– Can also be used to measure reliability
– Correlation does not mean causation.
– Coefficient of determination is a statistic
 Should be calculated after computation of a
correlation coefficient.
2
 Obtained by squaring the correlation coefficient (r )
 Interpreted as the percentage of variance shared by
the two variables
• Scatter Plots
– Also called a scatter diagram or a scattergram
– Graphic presentation of the relationship between two
variables
– Determines magnitude of the relationship and the
direction of the relationship
– X variable is plotted on the horizontal axis; Y variable is
plotted on the vertical axis.
 Pairs of scores are plotted on a graph.
• Contingency Tables
– Also called a cross-tabulation table
– Visual means of displaying the relationship between
sets of nominal data
• Types of Correlational Procedures
– Determination of appropriate correlation procedure is dependent
upon level of data of the variables being correlated.
 Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio
 Select procedure appropriate for the lowest level of data.
– Pearson r
 Most common correlational procedure used in nursing
research
 Pearson product-moment correlation
– Spearman Rho
 Commonly used with ordinal data
 Symbolized by rs , rrho , or rho
• Types of Correlational Procedures
– Procedures appropriate for nominal data include:
 Contingency coefficient
 Phi coefficient
 Cramer’s V
• Intraocular Method of Data Analysis
– Researcher should always use the so-called intraocular
method when analyzing data.
– Eyeball your data.
– After glancing at the data, an estimate should be made
of the results of data analysis.
• Critiquing Descriptive Statistics in Research Reports
– Difficult for beginning reader of research reports to
critique the statistical content
– Background knowledge needed to critique most reports
is not extensive.
– Knowledge of a few statistical concepts goes a long
way.
– Guidelines for Critiquing Descriptive Statistics
1. What types of descriptive statistics are included in the research
report?
2. Were the descriptive statistics appropriate for the level of
measurement of the variable(s)?
3. Were measures of central tendency and variability both
presented?
4. Do the descriptive statistics clearly present the demographic
characteristics of the subjects?
5. Are the descriptive statistics clearly presented in the text? In
tables and graphs?
6. Do the descriptive statistics presented in the text agree with
those presented in the tables?
– Identify various descriptive statistics used to analyze
data
– Determine level of measurement of each variable by
searching the researcher’s operational definitions
– Check descriptive data presented in the text of the
report and in tables and graphs
– Ensure that data is presented in a manner that can be
understood by average practicing nurse so study can
be considered for implementation in practice
Introduction
• Inferential statistics use sample data to make decisions or
inferences about a population. based on the laws of
probability.
• Inferential statistical tests are based on the assumption
that chance is the only explanation for relationships found
in research studies.
• Inferential statistics are based on the assumption that the
sample was randomly selected.
Purposes of Inferential Statistics (1 of 19)
• Two broad purposes
– Estimating population parameters from sample data
(after data collection)
 Considered after the data are collected
– Testing hypotheses (before data collection)
 Considered before data collection
• Estimating Population Parameters
– Sampling error occurs when sample does not
accurately reflect population.
– Majority of samples chosen from a population will
accurately reflect the population.
– Central limit theorem
 Phenomenon in which sample values tend to be
normally distributed around the population value
• Estimating Population Parameters
– A theoretical frequency distribution, based on an infinite
number of samples, is called a sampling distribution
– Concept of sampling distribution is used over and over
in inferential statistics.
 Deals with “what ifs” rather than actual data
 Based on mathematical formulas and logic
– Every inferential statistical test is based upon the
concept of sampling distributions.
• Sampling Distribution of the Mean
– When scores or values are normally distributed
 Approximately 68% of the values lie between 1 SD
and the mean,
 95% of the values lie between 1.96 SD from the
mean.
• Sampling Distribution of the Mean
– Standard Error of the Mean
 Standard_deviation of the sampling distribution of
the mean
 Symbolized Sx
– Smaller value, more likely the sample is an
accurate reflection of the population mean.
• Confidence Intervals
– Range of values thought to contain the population
value
– Contain a lower and upper limit, with specified degree
of probability
– For some reason, confidence intervals have not been
reported very often in nursing studies.
– Nurse researchers should be aware of the value of
reporting confidence intervals in their research reports.
• Testing Hypotheses
1. State the study hypothesis (generally, a directional research
hypothesis).
2. Choose the appropriate statistical test.
3. Decide on the level of significance (alpha level).
4. Decide if a one-tailed or two-tailed test will be used.
5. Calculate the test statistic, using the research data.
6. Compare the calculated value to the critical value for that
particular statistical test.
7. Reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis.
8. Determine support or lack of support for the research
hypothesis.
• The Study Hypothesis
– Should generally be a directional research hypothesis
 Predicts results of study
– Null hypothesis
 H0
 Subjected to statistical analysis
 States no difference exists between populations
from which samples were chosen or no correlation
exists between variables in the population.
– If small differences or low correlations are found
 Chance is considered to be the reason
 Null hypothesis is not rejected; null hypothesis is
accepted
– If the results show the difference or correlation is too
large to be the result of chance
 Null hypothesis is rejected.
– Null hypothesis is frequently depicted using the
following symbols:
H0 : μ A  μ B

• Choosing a Statistical Test
– Choosing an appropriate statistical test and knowing
the rationale for this choice is more important than
being able to calculate the statistic.
– Two types of inferential procedures
 Those that search for differences in sets of data
 Those that search for correlations between sets of
data.
– Choice based primarily on the hypothesis(es) for the
study or the research question(s).
• Choosing a Statistical Test
– Some questions that need to be answered when choosing
the appropriate inferential procedure:
1. Are you comparing groups or sets of scores? Are you
correlating variables?
2. What is the level of measurement of the variables?
3. How large are the groups?
4. How many groups or sets of scores are being
compared?
5. Are the observations or scores dependent or
independent?
6. How many observations are available for each group?
• Level of Significance
– Probability level of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true
– Researcher-determined chance that the difference or
relationship that is found would be the result of random
chance
– Represented by Greek letter alpha  α 
– Letter p and α used to symbolize the probability level that is
set
– The most common probability level in nursing research is p
= .05.
 Means the researcher is willing to risk being wrong 5% of
the time
• One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests
– Research hypothesis may be stated in the directional
form or the nondirectional form.
– Directional research hypotheses should be based on a
sound conceptual or theoretical framework.
– If the researcher has stated a directional research
hypothesis, use a one-tailed test of significance.
– One-tailed test of significance
 Differences or correlations are sought in only one
tail of theoretical sampling distribution
 Tail is used to indicate the values on each end of
the distribution.
 Easier to reject null hypothesis.
 Appropriate for studies based on a sound study
framework.
– Two-tailed test of significance
 Appropriate for nondirectional research hypotheses
 Used to determine significant values in both ends of
sampling distribution.
– Type of research hypothesis chosen will determine
significance level needed to reject the null hypothesis.
• Calculating the Test Statistic
– Comparing Calculated Value and Critical Value
 Critical value
– Scientific cutoff point
– Denotes a value in a theoretical distribution at
which all obtained sample values that are equal
to or beyond that point in the distribution are said
to be statistically significant
 Critical region or region of rejection
– Where all values beyond the critical value reside
• Calculating the Test Statistic
– Comparing Calculated Value and Critical Value
 Degrees of Freedom (df)
– Relate to the number of values that are free to
vary
– Interpretation of statistical tests dependent on
the degrees of freedom
– Generally denoted by the letters df and a
number (e.g., df = 2)
• Support for the Study Hypothesis
– In nearly every study, the goal of the researcher is to
reject the null hypothesis.
– After examining the obtained p value, if it is less than
level of significance that was set (generally, p = .05),
researcher rejects the null hypothesis.
– Conversely, if the p value is greater than set level of
significance, researcher must fail to reject the null
hypothesis.
Factors Affecting Choice of Statistical
Measures (1 of 6)
• Different kinds of issues that affect the researcher’s choice
– Level of data being examined
– Different assumptions that various tests may require
– Ability of a test to detect a difference or correlation
– Consequences of errors (type I and type II) from the
study
 Type I error
– Null hypothesis is actually true, but is rejected.
 Type II error
– Null hypothesis is actually false and it is retained.
Measures (2 of 6)
• Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Tests
– Parametric tests
 Concerned with population parameters
 Tests make assumptions about population from
which a sample was drawn.
 The level of measurement of the data is interval or
ratio.
 Data taken from populations that are normally
distributed on the variable that is being measured
 Data taken from populations that have equal
variances on the variable that is being measured
Measures (3 of 6)
• Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Tests
– Nonparametric tests
 Less stringent in the requirements for their use
 Do not make assumptions about the population from
which a sample is selected
 Tend to use either the median or the mode as part
of the calculation
 Often called distribution-free statistics
 May be used with nominal and ordinal data, and
when sample sizes are small
Measures (4 of 6)
• Power of a Statistical Test
– Ability of the test to reject a null hypothesis when it is
false
– Dependent on the sample size and the level of
significance that is chosen
– Larger the sample size chosen, the more power the
statistical test has.
– The higher the level of significance selected, the more
power the statistical test has.
– A one-tailed test is more powerful than a two-tailed
test.
Measures (5 of 6)
• Type I and Type II Errors
– Two mistakes can be made:
 Type I error
– If the null hypothesis is actually true and you
reject it.
 Type II error
– If the null hypothesis is actually false, and you
fail to reject it.
Measures (6 of 6)
• Type I and Type II Errors
– As the probability of a type I error increases, the
probability of a type II error decreases and vice versa.
– Type I errors in research findings usually result in
unnecessary changes being instituted.
– Type II errors result in failure to institute needed
changes.
Statistical Tests Used in Nursing Research (1
of 17)
• Three most common statistical tests used in nursing

research
– t test
– analysis of variance
– chi-square
of 17)
• t Test
– One of the most popular statistical tests
– Appropriate for samples of nearly any size
 Particularly useful with small sample sizes
– Another name is the Student t test
of 17)
• t Test
– Uses a t distribution
 One for each different degree of freedom
– Two forms
 One form is used with independent samples.
 Other is used with dependent samples.
of 17)
• t Test
– Dependent t test
 Paired t test or correlated samples t test
 When scores or values are associated or have
some connection
of 17)
• Analysis of Variance
– ANOVA enables researcher to analyze the difference
between several means at one time.
– Parametric statistical test
– Compares differences among more than two means at one
time
– Based on assumptions that data
 Are interval or ratio level
 Have been selected from populations that are normally
distributed
 Have equal variances on the variable that is being
measured
of 17)
– Uses F distribution
 Each F distribution is based on the degrees of
freedom
– Several different types
 One-way ANOVA
 Two-way ANOVA
 Repeated measures ANOVA.
of 17)
– Two types of variation
 “mean square between” groups
– MSB
 “mean square within” groups
– MSW
of 17)
– The variability of the scores or values in the population
affects the mean.
– To avoid rejecting a true null hypothesis, the A NOVA
examines two types of variability:
 The variability between the groups
 The variability within each of the groups.
of 17)
– If the difference or variation between groups is
significantly greater than the difference within the
groups, the null hypothesis is rejected.
– If the between-groups variation is not significantly
greater than the within-groups variation, the null
hypothesis is not rejected.
of 17)
• Chi-Square
– X2
– Nonparametric inferential technique
– Appropriate for comparing nominal sets of data
 Frequencies or percentages
of 17)
• Chi-Square
– Probably the most commonly used statistic with
nominal data
– Observed frequencies are compared to expected
frequencies.
– Null hypothesis is rejected if the observed frequencies
are quite different from the expected frequencies at a
specified level of significance.
– Most common use is with the chi-square test for
independence, also called the chi-square test for
contingency tables.
of 17)
• Testing the Significance of Correlation Coefficients

– Researcher wants to determine if the obtained r, based
on sample data, came from a population of pairs of
values for which the actual correlation is 0.
– Null hypothesis states there is 0 correlation between
these two variables in the population.
– To determine if a correlation coefficient is significant, a t
test can be calculated or a table of significant values
consulted.
of 17)
• Testing the Significance of Correlation Coefficients

– Rather than using an inferential procedure to determine
the statistical significance of a correlation coefficient, a
more accurate interpretation of a correlation coefficient
2
is obtained by squaring the coefficient (r ),
thereby determining the percentage of variance shared
by the two variables.
of 17)
• Advanced Statistical Tests

– Multiple regression
 When researcher wishes to determine the influence
of more than one independent variable on the
dependent variable
– Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
 When researcher wishes to control statistically for
some variable that may have an influence on the
dependent variable
of 17)

– Canonical correlation
 Examines the correlation between two or more
independent variables and two or more dependent
variables
– Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
 Examines the difference between the mean scores
of two or more groups on two or more dependent
variables that are examined at the same time
of 17)

– Meta-analysis
 Combines the results of several quantitative studies that
have been conducted on the same topic
– Metasynthesis
 Technique used in summarizing reports of qualitative
research studies
 Combines results of several qualitative studies that cover
the same topic
• Critiquing Inferential Statistics in Research Reports
– Minimal understanding of inferential statistics is sufficient.
of 17)
– Reader should
 Search the report for any inferential statistics that were used in
data analysis
 Determine if there is enough information to make a decision
about the appropriateness of each test that was used
 Be provided with the value of the statistical test that was
obtained, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level
that was reached when each hypothesis was tested
 Be able to determine if each of the researcher’s hypotheses
was supported or not
– Every research report should clearly present the results of
hypothesis testing in both the text of the report and in the tables.
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Nursing Research

Data Analysis and

Blank Population Sample Symbols

• Three most common statistical tests used in nursing

• Testing the Significance of Correlation Coefficients

• Testing the Significance of Correlation Coefficients

• Advanced Statistical Tests

• Advanced Statistical Tests

• Advanced Statistical Tests

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