Chapter 2

CHAPTER TWO
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Cutting tool and Tool life
1
2.1 TOOL MATERIAL
 The three modes of tool failure :
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 Toughness:- is the capacity of a material to absorb energy with out
failing. It is a combination of strength and ductility in the material.
 Hot Hardness:-Hot hardness is the ability of a material to retain its
hardness at high temperature.
 Wear resistance: - Wear resistance refers to the ability of tool
material to retain its sharpness & shape.
2
TOOL MATERIAL CONT…

The following cutting-tool
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materials are commonly used:
High speed steel
cast cobalt alloys
Cemented carbides
ceramics and
Diamond
3
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Figure …Typical hot hardness 4
relationships for selected tool materials

 It is also useful to compare the
materials in terms of the parameters n
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and C in the Taylor tool life equation.
Table 1 Representative values of n and C in the Taylor’s tool life
equation, equation (1), for the selected tool material.
5
 High-speed steel (HSS) is a highly alloyed tool steel
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capable of maintaining hardness at elevated temperature
better than high carbon steels. Two basic classifications
are:
 Tungsten-type HSS (T-grade):- This type contains tungsten (W) as its
principal alloying ingredient. One of the original and best known HSS
grade is T1, or 18-4-1 high speed steel, containing 18%W, 4%Cr
and1%V.
 Molybdenum-type HSS (M-grade):-This type contains combinations
of tungsten (W) and Molybdenum (Mo) plus the same additional
alloying elements as in T-grades.
6
Table 2 Typical contents and functions of alloying
elements in high speed steel.
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7
 Cast Cobalt Alloys cutting tools consists of cobalt,
around 40%to 50%; chromium, about 25%to 35%; and
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tungsten, usually15% to 20%; with trace amounts of
other elements.
 These tools are made into the desired shape by casting in
graphite molds and then grinding to final size and
cutting-edge sharpness.Some of the outstanding
properties are:
 Wear resistance of the cast cobalt is better than high-speed
steel, but not as good as cemented carbide.
 Toughness of cast cobalt tools is better than carbides but not as
good as high-speed steel. Hot hardness also lies between these
two materials.
8
 Cemented carbides include:
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 siliconand titanium carbides (called cermets)
 tungsten carbides and
 titanium carbides.
 A carbide tool material consists of carbide
particles bound together in a cobalt matrix by
sintering.
 the cobalt content is 3–20%, depending upon the
desired combination of toughness and hardness.
 Carbides have excellent wear resistance and high
hot hardness. 9
 One of the most revolutionary changes in the metal
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cutting industry has been thin-film hard coatings
 Today, 50% of HSS and 85% of carbide tools used in
industry are coated.
 Coatings considerably improve tool life by:
o Providing increased surface hardness.
o Increasing resistance
o Reducing friction coefficients
o Reducing the portion of the thermal energy of the tool.
o Increasing corrosion and oxidation resistance.
o Improving the surface quality of finished parts. 10
 Ceramics consist primarily of fine grained aluminum oxide, cold-
pressed into insert shapes and sintered under high pressure and
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temperature. Pure aluminum oxide ceramics are called white
ceramics while the addition of titanium carbide and zirconium
oxide results in black ceramics .
 The prime benefit of ceramics is:
 High hardness (and thus abrasive wear resistance) at elevated
temperatures.
 Chemical stability means that the ceramic does not react with the
material it is cutting.
11
 There are two basic kinds of ceramics:
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Aluminum oxide is wear resistant but
brittle, and used chiefly on hardened
steel.
Silicon nitride is relatively soft and
tough and is used on cast irons.
12
 Diamonds is a crystalline form of carbon, has the highest
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hardness and heat conductivity among all substances.
 Diamond cutting tools are responsible for getting an excellent
surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
 Because of their strong chemical affinity, diamonds are not
recommended for machining plain-carbon steels and titanium,
nickel and cobalt-based alloys.
13
 A properly designed diamond tool is capable of machining 10–100
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times the number of parts formerly machined by conventional
high-speed steel or carbide tools.
 Diamonds can routinely machine 10,000–50,000 pieces and, in
some cases, can machine as many as 100,000 pieces in set-ups
where carbide tools have machined no more than 300–400 pieces
between re sharpening.
14
2.2 NOMENCLATURE OF CUTTING TOOLS
 The simplest cutting operation is one in which a straight-edged
tool moves with constant velocity in a direction perpendicular to
the cutting edge of the tool. This is known as the two-
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dimensional or orthogonal cutting process, illustrated in
Figure 2.1
In orthogonal cutting, the two basic surfaces of the work piece are
considered:
 The work surface: the surface of the work piece to be removed by
machining.
 The machined surface: the surface produced after the cutting tool
passes.
15
NOMENCLATURE OF CUTTING TOOLS CONT…
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Figure 2.1 Terminology in orthogonal cutting
16
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 Depending upon the number of cutting edges, the cutting
tools used in metal cutting are classified as follows.
 Single point tools: - having only one cutting edge and.
 Multiple points: - having more than one cutting edge e.g.
milling, reamers, drills, broaches, grinding wheels etc.
17
 The single point tools can be classified into various types,
depending on various criteria as:
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 According to construction: - Solid Brazed tip and Throwaway Tip.
 According to type of operation: - Turning, facing. Boring,
Knurling, Threading, parting, forming.
 According to Shape: - Cranked, straight, circular, square,
 According to direction of cut:-Left hand cut tool, Right hand cut
tools.
18
2.2.1 NOMENCLATURE SYSTEMS
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Cutting tool used on a lathe are generally single-pointed
cutting tools. Although the shape of the tool is changed for
various applications the same nomenclature is applied to all
cutting tools.
 A conventional single point tool has sharpened cutting part
called its point. The point of the tool is never sharp but is
given small radius called nose radius.
 The point of the tool is bonded by rake face along which
chips flows on topside, principal flank (or major flank or
side flank) on one of the sides-of the tool and auxiliary
flank or end flank on end of the tool.
19
1.5 NOMENCLATURE OF CUTTING TOOLS
CONT…
 The edge formed by intersection of face and side flank is

called side cutting edge (or principal cutting edge or major
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cutting edge, where as edge formed by intersection of face
and end flank is called end cutting edge (or auxiliary cutting
edge or minor cutting edge).
20
 The point where the end and side flanks meet is called
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nose. The bottom portion, of the tool is called base.
 The position behind the point portion is the holding or
mounting portion of tool called shank. The shank may be
square, rectangular or circular in cross section depending
on the type of tool.
21
 Thevarious angles specified in this system are
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defined below:
 Back rake angle: This is an angle between face and
base of tool measured in plane perpendicular to base and
parallel to axis of the tool.
 Side rake angle: This is an angle between face and base
measured in plane perpendicular to base and
longitudinal axis of tool.
 End relief angle: This is an angle between end flank
immediately below end cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to base of the tool.
22
 Side relief angle: This is an angle between side flank
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immediately below side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to
base of the tool.
 Side cutting edge angle: This is the angle which the primary
cutting edge forms with the side of the tool shank.
 End cutting edge angle: This is an angle formed by the end
cutting edge and a line at right angles to the center line of the
tool.
23
2.2.2 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

 For cutting tools, geometry depends mainly on:
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 The properties of the tool material and
 The work material.
 The most important angles to consider are:

 Rake angles
 End relief angle

Side relief angle
24
 The standard terminology is shown in the figure 2.2 (a) & (b) below for
single point cutting tools.
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25
Figure 2.2 (a) and (b) single point cutting tool standard terminology
2.3 CUTTING FLUID
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 During metal cutting, the metal
immediately ahead of the cutting
tool is severely compressed, which
results in heat being generated.
 The metal then slides along the tool
face, friction between the two
surfaces generating additional heat.
26
production engineering department
 Any rubbing between the tool and
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the cut surface, which would occur
with tool wear when the clearance
angle is reduced, also produces
heat.
 This heat is usually detrimental,
especially to high-speed-steel
cutting tools.
27
 Some metals, as they are cut, have a
tendency to produce a chip which sticks
or welds to the tool face, due chiefly to
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the high pressure between the metal
and the tool.
 This has the effect of increasing the
power required for cutting, increasing
the friction and therefore heat, and
finally, as the chip breaks away from the
tool face, it creates wear on the tool
face and a bad surface finish on the
work.
28
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 Excessive heat generated during
the cutting operations may be
sufficient to cause the work to
expand.
 Work measured under these
conditions may be undersize when
it cools.
29
 The basic role of a cutting fluid is to
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control heat, and it may do this by
direct cooling of the work chip and tool
or by reducing friction by lubricating
between the work, chip and tool.
 To cool effectively, a cutting fluid
should have a high specific heat
capacity and a high thermal
conductivity.
30
 The fluids most readily associated
with cooling and lubricating are water
and oil.
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 Water has a higher specific heat
capacity and thermal conductivity
than oil, but unfortunately will
promote rust and has no lubricating
properties.
 Oil does not promote rust, has good
lubricating properties, but does not
cool as well as water.
31
 To benefit from the advantages of each,
they can be mixed together with various
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additives to give a required measure of
cooling and lubrication.
 With the high cost of oil, the cost of
savings of water-based fluids are so
great that a great deal of development
is being carried out to provide fluids
which have good lubricating properties
when mixed with water.
32
 The ideal cutting fluid, in achieving
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the above, should
not corrode the work or
machine,
have a low evaporation rate,
be stable and not foam or fume,
not injure or irritate the
operator.
33
 Types of Cutting Oils:
 Most commonly used Cutting oils and
their general applications are described
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below.
 Lard Oil:
• Pure lard oil is one of the oldest and
best cutting oils.

• Lard oil has a high degree of adhesion
or oiliness, a relatively high specific

heat capacity, and its fluidity changes
slightly with the temperature.
34
 It is excellent rust preventive and
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produces a smooth finish on the
work piece.
 Because of its expensiveness, it is
seldom to use it in a pure state but
can be mixed with other ingredients
to form good cutting oil mixtures.
35
 Mineral Oil:
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 Mineral oils are petroleum based oils
that range in viscosity from kerosene
to light paraffin oils.
 Mineral oil is very stable and does not
develop disagreeable odors like lard
oil; however, it lacks some of the good
qualities of lard oil such as adhesion,
oiliness, and high specific heat
capacity.
36
 Because of its relatively
inexpensiveness, it is mixed with lard
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oil or other chemicals to provide
cutting oils with desirable
characteristics.
 Two mineral oils, kerosene and
turpentine, are often used alone for
machining aluminum and magnesium.
37
 Soluble Cutting Oils:
o
Water is an excellent cooling medium
but has little lubricating value and
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hastens rust and corrosion.
mineral oils or lard oils which are
mixable with water are often mixed

with water to form a cutting oil.
Soluble oil and water has lubricating
qualities depending upon the

strength of the solution.
38
 Sulfur zed-Fatty-Mineral Oil:
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
Most good cutting oils contain
mineral oil and lard oil with
various amounts of sulfur and
chlorine, which give the oils
good anti weld properties and
promote free machining.
39
 Soda-Water Mixtures:
 Salts such as soda ash and phosphate
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are sometimes added to water to help
control rust.
 White Lead and Lard Oil Mixture:
 White lead can be mixed with either

lard oil or mineral oil to form cutting oil
which is especially suitable for difficult
machining of very hard metals.
40
 Application of cutting fluids
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 Having selected the correct type of
cutting fluid, it is equally important to
apply it correctly.
 This is best done by providing a
generous flow at low pressure to flood
the work area.
 Flooding has the additional advantage
of washing away the chips produced.
41
 Fluid fed at high pressure is not
recommended, since it breaks into a
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fine spray or mist and fails to cool
or lubricate the cutting zone.
 To cope with the large flow of
fluid, the machines must have
adequate splash guards, otherwise
the operator tends to reduce the
flow and the resulting dribble does
little to improve cutting.
42
 Many methods have been used to
direct the fluid into the cutting
zone and from every possible
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direction.
 The shape of the nozzle is
important but depends largely on
the operation being carried out
and on the shape of the
workpiece.
 The nozzle may be a simple large-
bore pipe or be flattened as a fan
shape to provide a longer stream.
43
 The main flow may be split into a
number of streams directed in
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different directions – up, down or
from the sides or, by means of
holes drilled in a length of pipe.
 In some cases, especially with
grinding, where the wheel speed
creates air currents which deflect
the cutting fluid, deflector plates
are fitted to the pipe outlet.
44
 Where the cutting tool is vertical,
it can be surrounded by a pipe
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having a series of holes drilled
into the bore and directed
towards the cutting tool.
 Whatever the method used, the
fundamental need is to deliver
continuously an adequate amount
of cutting fluid where it is
required.
45
2.4 TOOL WEAR
Metal cutting tools wear constantly when they
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are being used. A normal amount of wear
should not be a cause for concern until the size
of the worn region has reached the point where
the tool should be replaced. Normal wear
cannot be avoided and should be differentiated
from abnormal tool breakage or excessively
46
fast wear.
Tool breakage and an excessive rate of wear
indicate that the tool is not operating correctly
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and steps should be taken to correct this
situation.
There are several basic mechanisms that cause
tool wear. It is generally understood that tools
wear as a result of abrasion which is caused by
hard particles of work material plowing over
the surface of the tool. Wear is also caused by
diffusion or alloying between the work 47
material and the tool material
TOOL WEAR …
Tool wear has probably been the one machining issue
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most researched since the beginnings of machine tool
history. The objective of toolmakers has always been
to develop harder and tougher cutting tools in order
to machine engineering materials that have been
continuously evolving. Although significant progress
has been made in the development of wear resistant
tools, still rapid wear out, under severe machining
48
conditions, present at the tool–chip interface.
TOOL WEAR …..
The most important process parameters that
affect tool wear are:
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 Cutting temperature: Cutting tools have
much lower mechanical hardness and
toughness at elevated temperatures.
 Thermal and mechanical periodic impact:
When the tool is subjected to intermittent
cutting, such as milling, it is susceptible to
fast wear.
49
TOOL WEAR…
The following list contains some mechanisms of wear:
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Adhesion: This wear mechanism is
based on the formation of welded
junctions and their subsequent
breakage.
Abrasion: Hard particles in the work
piece material (e.g., carbides) abrade
and dislodge (micro) particles from the
surface of the cutting tool.
50
TOOL WEAR…
Diffusion: This wear mechanism is present
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because of potential chemical affinity
between the tool material and the work
piece material.
Fatigue: Thermal and mechanical loading of
the cutting tool results in micro cracks that
lead to chipping and, at worst, to
catastrophic failure of the cutting edge.
51
2.5 PROGRESSIVE TOOL WEAR
The progressive wear of cutting tools can be
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quantified by the following two metrics.
Crater wear: Also known as rake-face wear,
crater wear corresponds to a formation of crater
like shallow cavity on the rake face of the tool
very near to the tool edge.
Flank wear: It refers to the wearing of the flank
face, starting at the cutting edge and
progressively developing downward and
sideway.
52
PROGRESSIVE TOOL WEAR…
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Figure 2.3 (a) Crater wear; and (b) flank wear
53
.
2.6 TOOL LIFE
Tool life is defined as the length of
cutting time that the tool can be used.
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Operating the tool until final
catastrophic failure is one way of
defining tool life.
The general relationship of tool wear
versus cutting time is shown in figure
2.4.
54
TOOL LIFE CONT…
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Figure 2.4 tool wear as a function of cutting
time. Flank wear is used here as a measure
55
of tool wear. Crater wear follows the same a
similar growth curve.
TOOL LIFE CONT…
Three regions can usually be identified in the
typical wear growth curve.
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 break-in period: cutting edge wears
rapidly at the beginning of its use
 the steady-state wear region :this

region is pictured as a linear function of time
 the failure region :wear reaches a level

at which the wear rate begins to accelerate.
56
Tool Life…
If allowed to continued, the tool finally fails by
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temperature failure.
The slope of the tool wear curve in the steady-
state region is affected by work material and
cutting conditions. Harder work material
causes the wear rate to increase.
57
TOOL LIFE CONT…
If the tool wear curves are plotted for several different
cutting speeds, the results appear as in figure 2 below.
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Figure 2.5 Effects of cutting speed on tool
flank wear for three cutting speeds.
Hypothetical values of speed and tool life are58
shown for tool life criterion on 0.5mm flank
wear.
TOOL LIFE CONT…
 A level of tool wear can be selected as a criterion of
tool life, and the tool is replaced when wear reaches
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that level.
 A convenient tool life criterion is a certain flank
wear value, such as 0.5mm illustrated at the
horizontal line on the graph.
 When each of the three wear curves intersects that
line, the life of the corresponding tool is defined as
ended.
 If the intersection points are projected down to the
time axis, the values of tool life can be
identified.
59
TOOL LIFE CONT…
Taylor tool life equation
 the tool life values for the three wear curves in
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figure 2.5 are plotted:
60
Figure 2.6 Natural log-log plot of cutting speed versus tool life.
TOOL LIFE CONT…
 The discovery of this relationship around 1900 is credited
to F.W. Taylor.
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 This relationship can be expressed in equation form and is
called the Taylor tool life equation.
vT  Cn …………(1)
Where v = cutting speed/min (ft/min);
T = tool life, min.
C =Taylor constant and it is the cutting speed that
results in a 1-min tool life.
n = the tool life exponent.

The following values may be taken for 'n'.
n = 0.1 to 0.15 for HSS tools
= 0.2 to 0.4 for carbide tools 61
= 0.5 to 0.6 for ceramic tools
Taylor tool life equation…
Note that n and C are parameters whose
values depend on:
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 Feed
 Depth of cut
 Work material,
 Tool material and
The value of n is relative constant for a given
tool material, while the value of C depends
on tool material, work material and cutting62
conditions.
TOOL LIFE CONT…
 Relating the parameters n and C to figure 2.6;
 n is the slope of the plot and
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 C is the intercept on the speed axis.
 The problem with equation (1) is that the units on the right-
hand side of the equation are not consistent with the units of
on the left-hand side. To make the units consistent, the
equation should be expressed in the form:
………….(2)
Where = a reference
vT n value
 C (Tforn ref
C and
) is simply 1 min
when T m/min
ref (ft/min) and minutes are used for
and T, respectively.
v
63
Example
Determine the value of C and n in the plot of figure 2.6.
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Solution: To determine the value of C and n, select two of the
three points on the curve and solve simultaneous equations of
the form of equation (1). Choosing the two extreme points:
= 160 m/min, T=5 min and
= 100 m/min,T=41 min;we have
64
12/03/23
65
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Chapter 2

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CHAPTER TWO

relationships for selected tool materials

tough and is used on cast irons.

2.2.1 NOMENCLATURE SYSTEMS

 The edge formed by intersection of face and side flank is

2.2.2 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

 The most important angles to consider are:

be stable and not foam or fume,

not injure or irritate the

best cutting oils.

or oiliness, a relatively high specific

mixable with water are often mixed

qualities depending upon the

 Salts such as soda ash and phosphate

 White Lead and Lard Oil Mixture:

 White lead can be mixed with either

Metal cutting tools wear constantly when they

Tool wear has probably been the one machining issue

Diffusion: This wear mechanism is present

The progressive wear of cutting tools can be

 the steady-state wear region :this

 the failure region :wear reaches a level

If allowed to continued, the tool finally fails by

n = the tool life exponent.

= 160 m/min, T=5 min and

= 100 m/min,T=41 min;we have

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